®lfp  E  B.  liU  ffitbraru 


Nnrtli  (Earolitm  BMb 
lltiiopraitg 


Forestrj^ 

SD391 

S350 


rf  RESOURCES 
LIBRARY 
This  book  was  presented  by 


uT,  J,   Schreiner, 
Forest  Geneticist 


S00418281   O 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


^/?£sr 


f^^SOURCr^ 


LIBRARY 


O^i 


m'^^'' 


iu3 


SYNOPSIS  OF  PARAGRAPHS. 


CHAPTER    I. 
Foundations  of  Sylviculture. 

Paragraph. 

I.  Introduction. 
II.  Ecological  factors  and  their  influence  on  the  sylva. 

III.  Influence  of  the  sylva  on  the  ecological  factors. 

IV.  The  North  American  sylva. 

V.  General  definitions  and  explanations. 
VI.  Light  demanders  and  shade  bearers. 
VII.  Pure  versus  mixed  woods. 
VIII.  Dr.  Henry  Mayr's  fundamental  principles  of  sylviculture. 

CHAPTER   II. 

The  High  Forest.  , 

IX.  Genesis  of  the  high  forest  and  its  methods. 
X.  The  seed. 

XI.  Preparations  for  planting  seed  on  open  ground. 
XII.  Securing  and  preparing  the  seeds. 

XIII.  Actual  planting  of  seeds  on  open  ground. 

XIV.  Season  for  planting  seeds  on  open  ground. 
XV.  Auxiliaries  to  seed  planting. 

XVI.  Planting  seeds  of  the  broadleaved  species. 
XVII.  Planting  seeds  of  the  coniferous  species. 
XVIII.  Actual  planting  of  seedlings:  Introductory  remarks. 
XIX.  Criteria  of  good   seedlings. 
XX.  Age,  size  and  number  of  seedlings  used. 
XXI.  Lifting  seedlings  from  nursery  bed. 
XXII.  Transportation  of  seedlings. 

XXIII.  Common  methods   of  planting  seedlings  in  the  open. 

XXIV.  Special  methods  and  tools  used  for  planting  seedlings  in 

the  open. 
XXV.  Season  for  planting  seedlings. 
XXVI.  Cultivation  of  plantations. 
XXVII.  Prairie  planting  in  particular. 
XXVIII.  Methods  of  obtaining  plants  for  planting. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

XXIX.  Permanent  nurseries  in  particular. 
XXX.  Seed  jjlanting  in  seed  beds. 
XXXI.  Transplanting  in  transplanting  beds. 
XXXII.  Protection  of  nurseries. 

XXXIII.  Nursing  in  nurseries. 

XXXIV.  Special   nursery   methods   proclaimed  by   renowned  .sylvi- 

culturists. 
XXXV.  Raising  and  planting  hardwood  seedlings  on  open  ground. 
XXXVI.  Raising  and  planting  softwood  seedlings  on  open  ground. 
XXXVII.  European  results  of  planting  experiments  with  American 

hardwoods. 
XXXVIII.  European  results  of  planting  experiments  with  American 
softwoods. 
XXXIX.  Difficulties  of  natural  seed  regeneration    (Enesar). 

XL.  Age  of  trees  fit  for  natural  seed  regeneration  (Enesar). 
XLI.  Methods  of  natural  seed  regeneration   (Enesar). 
XLII.  Types  in  which  lumbering  precedes  natural  seed  regenera- 
tion. 
XLIII.  Cleared  compartment  type. 
XLIV.  Cleared  strip  type. 
XLV.  Cleared  group  type. 
XLVI.  Cleared  selection  type. 
XLVII.  Types,   in   which   lumbering   coincides   with   natural   seed 

regeneration. 
XLVIII.  Shelterwood   compartment  type. 
XLIX.  Shelterwood  strip  type. 
L.  Shelterwood  group  type. 
LI.  SlieUerwood  FeVrficn  type. 

LII.  Types  in  which  lumbering  follows  natural  seed  regenera- 
tion. 
LIII.  Advance  growth  compartment  type. 
LIV.  Advance  growth  strip  type. 
LV.  Advance  growth  group  type. 
LVI.  Advance  growth  selection  type. 

LVII.  Regeneration  of  valuable  species  by  natural  seed  regenera- 
tion  with,   amongst    and   into   companions   of   weedy 
character. 
LVIII.  Pedagogy  of  the  high  forest. 
LIX.  Cleaning  in   high  forest. 
LX.  Weeding  in  high  forest. 
LXI.  Improvement  cutting  in  high  forest. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

LXII.  Thinning   in   high    forest. 
LXIII.  Pruning  in  high  forest. 
LXIV.  Underphanting  in  high  forest. 
LXV.  Key  to  the  forms  of  high  forest. 
LXVI.  Critical  remarks  on  high  forest. 
LXVII.  High  forest  by  species. 

CHAPTER   III. 

The  Coppice  Forest. 

LXVIII.  Genesis  of  the  coppice  forest. 
LXIX.  Pedagogy  of  the  coppice  forest. 
LXX.  Key  to  the  forms  of  coppice  forest. 
LXXI.  Critical  remarks  on  coppice  forest. 
LXXII.  Coppice  forest  by  species. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

The  Coppice  Under  Standards  Forest, 

LXXIII.  Genesis  of  coppice  under  standards. 
LXXIV.  Pedagogy  of  coppice  under  standards. 
LXXV.  Key  to  the  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 
LXX VI.  Critical  remarks  on  coppice  under  standards. 
LXXVII.  Coppice  under  standards  by  species. 

CHAPTER   V. 

Propagation  of  Forest  Products  Other  Than  Wood  and  Timber. 

LXXVIII.  Raising  of  forest  by-products. 
LXXIX.  Combination  of  sylvicultin-e  and  agriculture. 


LECTURES  ON  SYLVICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

FOUXDATIOXS  OF  SYLVICULTURE. 
Paragraph  I.     Introduction. 

Sylviculture  means  tlie  raising  and  tending  of  forest  products 
(wood,  bark,  deer,  stock  and  other  by-products). 

Sylviculture  was  practiced  by  the  ancients  only  for  park  or 
orchard  purposes.  The  first  writings  on  Sylviculture  proper  appear 
in  the  so-called  "  House  Father  Literature."  / 

Sylviculture  as  a  discipline  was  developed  by  George  L.  Hartig,       j|      I 
Henry  Von  Cotta  and  Christian  Hundeshagen.     European  standard  (\Nj 
books  on  Sylviculture  of  more  modern  tenure  are  those  of  Charles     ^ 
Heyer  adapted  by  Schlich)   and  by  Cliarles  Gayer. 

European  Sylviculture  in  word  and  work  has,  in  the  course  of 
years,  petrified  into  a  set  of  recipes.  It  is  high  time  for  Sylvicul- 
ture to  be  taught  and  practiced  on  the  basis  of  Plant  Ecology. 

For  America,  European  Sylviculture  at  the  present  moment  is 
of  no  more  use  than  Chinese  Sylviculture,  owing  to  the  great  eco- 
nomic differences  separating  the  old  from  the  new  country.  Tli'3 
ecological  principles  underlying  Sylviculture  are,  obvic  isly,  identi- 
cal for  all  countries. 

The  planting  of  trees  on  a  large  scale  is,  in  this  country,  now 
out  of  the  question,  since  the  expense  of  planting  an  acre  of  land 
usually  exceeds  the  value  of  an  acre  of  forest.  The  modern  owners 
of  woodlands  are  not  far  sighted  enough — possibly  not  credulous 
enough — to  anticipate  the  arrival  of  European  stumpage  prices  for  a 
time  at  which  plantations  now  started  will  have  developed  into 
mature  trees. 

If  we  can  assume  that  stumpage  in  this  country  will  be  as 
valuable  in  1980  as  it  is  now  in  Germany,  France  and  England,  then 
forest  planting  must  be,  at  least,  as  remunerative  here  as  it  is  in  the 
old  countrv  (small  soil  value  in  the  United  States). 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Sylviculture  as  a  discipline  comprises  the  following  themes: 

A.  Ecological   principles,   facts   and   definitions. 

B.  The  genesis  of   the  forest. 

C.  The  pedagogy  of  the  forest. 

D.  The  sylvicultural  forms. 

In  the  discussion  of  themes  B,  C,  and  D,  a  distinction  is  made 
between  the  treatment  of: 

1.  High  forests. 

2.  Coppice  forests. 

3.  Coppice  under  standards  forests. 

Paragraph  II.    Ecological  factors  and  their  influence  on  the  sylva. 

A.  Definition. — Plant  ecology  is  a  branch  of  botany  showing  the 
dependence  and  adaptation  of  plant  forms  and  plant  life  of  and  to 
the  surrounding  local  factors   (climate,  soil,  etc.). 

B.  Natural  laws  govern  the  organization  of  the  species  and  regu- 
late the  communal  life  (symbiosis)  and  messmateship  (commen- 
salism)  of  individuals  with  their  own  kin,  with  relatives  and  with 
other  plants  belonging  to  the  same  household  and  feeding  at  tlie 
same  table. 

C.  The  most  important  ecological  factors  are: 

I.  Air.  Oxygen,  nitrogen  and  carbonic  acid,  the  main  com- 
ponents of  air,  are  essential  for  plant  life.  The  relative  proportion 
of  the  two  integral  parts,  79%  N.,  21%  0.,  varies  very  little  with 
altitude,  latitude  and  elevation.  Salt  particles  in  the  air  near  ocean 
and  sulphuric  acid  in  the  air  near  melting  works  are  very  injurious 
to  plant  life. 

II.  Light.     Intensity  depends  on: 

Season. 

Latitude. 

Altitude. 
Direct  insolation  is  said  to  be  on  the  whole  of  less  importance 
than  diffused  light  (excepting  polar  regions). 

Light  is  not  required  for  germination  of  seeds.  Without  light, 
however,  there  is  no  assimilation,  and  hence  no  possibility  of  tree 
life.  Assimilation  increases  with  increasing  intensity  of  insolation; 
excessive  insolation  is,  however,  destructive.  For  each  species,  and 
for  each  stage  of  its  growth,  there  exists  a  certain  optimum,  mini- 
mum and  maximum  of  insolation  with  reference  to  the  possibilities 
of  its  success.  The  damaging  influence  of  excessive  insolation  is 
prevented  by  the  inner  organization  of  the  plant. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

The  duration  (number  of  clays)  of  insolation  is  as  important  as 
the  intensity  of  insolation.  Within  the  individual  tree  the  lower 
branches  are  killed  gradually,  being  overshadowed  by  new  upper 
branches.  Without  light  no  bud;  without  bud  no  leafing  branch; 
without  new  leaves  annually  formed  no  limb  can  live. 

Within  one  and  the  same  species  a  tree  once  acquiring  superi- 
ority over  its  neighbors  is  apt  to  retain  superiority  until  death. 
Since  it  enjoys  more  light,  it  assimilates  better. 

Within  rival  species,  owing  to  greater  sensitiveness  of  chloro- 
phyll and  thanks  to  more  favorable  inclination,  form  and  position  of 
leaves,  some  species  exceed  others  in  assimilation  and  vitality  under 
the  same  influx  of  light.  Shade  bearing  are  such  leaves  as  assimi- 
late sufficiently  (so  as  to  bear  buds  at  the  axils)  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  only  little  diffused  light  chances  to  strike  them. 

Many  dicotyledonous  trees  form  a  so-called  "leaf  mosaic,"  the 
lov/er  tiers  of  leaves  fitting  themselves  into  the  iniersticos  of  light 
left  in  the  upper  tiers.  ]\Iany  leaves  alter  their  inclination  towa^-d 
the  sun  according  to  the  hourly  degree  of  insolation  (plioto-metric 
movement).  The  epidermis  of  light  demanding  and  sun-expo.'^ed 
leaves  is  heavy,  leathery.  The  leaves  of  shade  bearers  are  thin  and 
wither  quickly  when  picked.  Light  demanding  leaves  arc;  often  shin- 
ing, reflecting  and  whitish,  so  especially  in  tropical  countries,  and 
the  leaf  stomata  are  deeply  sunk  into  the  surface.  On  the  ^ame 
tree  leaves  growing  in  the  shade  are  darker  than  those  growing  in 
the   light;    old   leaves   darker   than   young  ones. 

The  formation  of  spines  and  thorns  indicates  a  sun  plant;  hair 
or  down  are  usually  found  in  light  demanders  more  than  in  shade 
plants. 

III.  Heat. 

For  each  plant  and  for  each  step  of  its  development  can  be  de- 
termined a  minimum,  optimum  and  maximum  of  heat  required  or 
allowed.  Without  heat  growth  is  impossible,  since  cell  division  is 
impossible.  The  formation  of  chlorophyll,  breathing,  assimilation, 
germination,  flowering,  fruiting  and  transpiration  depend  on  heat. 
The  distribution  of  the  genera  is  governed,  pre-eminently,  by  heat. 

For  some  polar  plants,  life  is  possible  below  32  degrees  Faht.  As 
a  rule,  however,  plant  activity  begins  to  be  observable  at  50  degrees 
Faht. 

The  maxima  of  heat  compatible  with  plant  life  generally  lie  be- 
low   115   degrees'  Faht.     Excess   of   temperature   over   maximum   is 
more   disastrous   than   deficiency   of   heat   below  minimum.     Plants, 
however,  temporarily  fortify  themselves  against  periodical  extremes: 
9 


SYLVICULTURE. 

1.  By  non-freezing  cell  contents. 

2.  By  reduced  water  contents    (seed,  rosin). 

3.  By  lignification. 

4.  By  dropping  leaves  during  winter  or  during  period  of  exces 
sive  drought. 

5.  By  adequate  covers  (bark,  hairs,  bud  scales,  layers  rich  in  air 
cells,  reddish  color,  wrappings  formed  by  last  year's  leaves).  Tliese 
covers,  at  least,  allow  the  plant  to  escape  rapid  changes  of  tempera- 
ture. 

Short  periods  of  vegetation  and  long  periods  of  rest  result  from 
deficient  heat.  Hence  no  annual  plants  in  polar  regions.  Short 
shoots,  evergreen  leaves,  preparation  of  flowers  in  year  preceding 
fruit  are  characteristic  of  a  polar  flora.  In  troiiical  countries  there 
are  no  periods  of  rest  unless  determined  by  periods  of  drought. 

IV.  Moisture   df  air  and  precipitations. 

Water  is  at  hand 

a.  to  increase  the  toughness  of  wood  (imbibition  water  cf 
cell  walls) ; 

b.  to  allow  of  solution  of  cell  contents   (cell  sap) ; 

c.  to  serve  as  plant  food,  through  assimilation; 

d.  to  allow   of  osmotic  movement  of  sap; 

e.  to  assist  in  photometric  movement  of  leaves  (through  swell- 
ing and  irritation)  ; 

f.  to  reduce  rapidity  of  change  of  temperature  by  evaporation. 
Only  some  lichens  survive   a  process   of  absolute  drying.     Lack 

of  moisture  causes  crippled  growth,  and  frequently  subterranean 
forests  (mesquit). 

After  Henry  ]\[ayr,  the  minimum  of  moisture  compatible  witli 
tree  growth  is  two  inches  of  rainfall  and  flfty  per  cent,  of  relative 
humidity  during  period  of  vegetation. 

Phanerogamous  plants  are  unable  to  absorb  water  directly 
through  the  epidermis,  obtaining  it  instead  through  the  spongiolae 
of  the  roots  and,  in  gaseous  form,  through  the  stomata  of  the  leaves. 
Mosses  and  lichens,  however,  absorb  water  directly  through  the  epi- 
dermis. The  hygroscopic  power  of  a  dead  cover  of  mosses  on  the 
ground  equals  that  of  a  live  cover. 

Wet  climate  creates  evergreen  woods  (Paciflc  coast  and  Ant- 
arctic  forests   of   South   America). 

A  dry  climate  gives  rise  to  annual  species,  to  a  distinct  period 
of  rest,  to  rapid  flowering  and  fruiting. 

Precipitations  equally  distributed  over  the  twelve  months  of  ;ni 
entire  year  and  precipitations  falling  dm-ing  a  few  weeks  result  in 

10 


SYLVICULTURE. 

entirely  diflferent  floras.  Rain  in  suinmer__a.tJim]]ates-.giQwth  mucli 
more  than  rain  in  winter.  J)e  Candolle  divides  our  globe  according 
to  moisture  and  heat  and  on  tlie  basis  of  floral  difi'erences  resulting 
therefrom,  into  five  regions   in  the   fourth   of  which   we  are   living. 

1.  Hydromegathermal  region  (water  great  heat).  Mean  annual 
temperature  over  68  degrees  Faht.  (Amazon  river  region,  wet  tropi- 
cal zone). 

2.  Xerophilous  (Dry  loving)  region.  The  region  and  borders  of 
arid  deserts,  prairies,  sunny  slopes,  etc.,  exhibiting  a  flora  very 
modest  in  moisture  requirements. 

3.  Mesothermal  (medium  heat)  region,  having  mean  tempera- 
ture of  59  to  68  degrees  Faht.  (northern  Florida,  etc.). 

4.  JMicrothermal   (little  heat)   region  of  32  to  59  degrees  Faht. 

5.  Hecistothermal  (least  heat)  region  of  less  than  32  degrees 
Faht. 

The  most  important  representative  of  a  Xerophilous  charactei' 
is  the  Yellow  Pine.  The  hecistothermal  zone  shows  Spruces,  Birches, 
Cottonwoods. 

V.  Wind. 

Wind  brings  moisture  and  drought,  heat  and  cold;  it  covers 
or  uncovers  vegetation  with  sand  or  snow  drifts,  tumbling,  at 
prior  geographical  eras,  whole  mountains  into  the  valleys  (Loe^s 
formation).  Severe  wind  dwarfs  tree  growth  and  forces  branches 
to  grow  in  leeward  direction  only.  I'he  influence  of  a  slight  obstruc- 
tion, preventing  the  access  of  wind  at  high  latitudes,  is  splendidly 
illustrated  by  the  growth  of  Spruce  and  Fir  on  Pisgah  Ridge.  On 
high  mountains  tree  gi'owth  is  often  entirely  determined  by  wind 
(slope   of   Little   Ball). 

Species  resisting  wind  best  in  Pisgah  Forest  are  Red  Oak, 
Chestnut,   Locust. 

Picea  alba  and  dwarf  pines  like  Pinus  pungens  and  montana 
show  great  strength  in  resisting  \\ind.  In  the  west  Tsuga  merten- 
siana,  Pinus  albicaulis,  Pinus  monticola,  further  western  Juniper 
rank  first  among  the  trees  braving  severe  storms. 

.Wind    is   pggpnti\n1    fm— jjiP^j^rpaj^ng^jrQr]    fpr   thp    ppl'spiratinn    of 

Jeaves  and  liark;  for  driving  pollen  on  stigma  to  fertilize  the  seed; 
for  trininiing  tlie  branches,  thus  forming  clear  boles;  for  dis- 
tributing seed.  The  investigations  conducted  by  Fliche  (French 
Forester)  have,  however,  yielded  the  astonishing  result  that  winged 
seeds  travel  much  slower  than  heavy  seeds  covetted  by  birds.  Fliclie 
gives  the  following  number  of  years  as  required  by  trees  traveling 
from  Nancy  to  Paris,  a  distance  of   160  miles: 

11 


z 


SYLVICULTURE. 

IJcech     18640    years. 

Chestnut    12920    years. 

Pine  .  : 48680  years. 

Sarvis    1330  to  2000  years. 

VL  Structure  of  soil. 

Soil   consists  of    natural   rock;    or   of   rock   disintegrated    under 
the  influence   of   water,   frost,   heat,  oxygen,   carbonic  acid,   lichens, 
bacteria;  or  of  washings  deposited  by  water,  wind  or  glaciers. 
The  components   of   soil   are: 

a.  Soil  skeleton,  large  grains,  principally  quartz  and  stones. 

b.  Soil  flesh,  minute  semi-soluble  particles, — the  mud  of  tho 
rivers. 

c.  Soil  fat,  the   humose  particles  giving  the   soil   a   dark  color-. 

d.  Soil  blood,  the  air  and  water,  filling  the  pores  of  the  soil. 
The  size  of  the  pores  determines  the  capillary  capacity. 

According  to  the  resistance  which  soil  offers  to  spade  or  plow, 
we  distinguish  the  following  classes: 
Light   soil ; 
Loose   soil; 
Binding    soil; 
Heavy   soil; 
Stiff   soil. 

VII.  Air  in  the  soil. 

Roots  require  oxygen  for  breathing.  Like  fish,  they  die  from 
lack  as  well  as  from  superabundance  of  oxygen.  Subterranean  air 
is  rich  in  carbonic  acid  exhaled  by  roots,  fungi,  bacteria,  animals. 
Swamp  soil  contains  little  air.  Hence  such  species  only  find  a 
living  in  swamps  which  have  large  inner  air  ducts  (Cypress  knees, 
Nyssa   root,   bamboo,   cane   breaks,   sour   grasses). 

Prairial  soil  is  naturally  so  compact  that  it  contains  Jittle  oxygen. 

VIII.  Water  in  the  soil. 
It   occurs: 

a.  Chemically  bound  to  minerals  and  salts. 

b.  Absorbed  by  the  hygroseopicity  of  soil. 

c.  Raised   by   the   capillary  power  of   soil. 

d.  As  ground  water — lakes,  swamps,  brooks  being  merely  areas 

of  open  ground  water. 
The  size  of  the  pores  and  the  presence  of  humus  govern  tho 
intensity  and  rapidity  of  water  obtention  and  retention.  Sand, 
for  instance,  allows  water  to  enter  its  large  pores  quickly,  but  gives 
it  up  rapidly  as  well.  Wet,  moist,  fresh,  dry  and  arid  soil  are 
distinguished. 

12 


SYLVICULTURE. 

The  degree  of  wetness  of  soil  is  of  the  utmost  iiiiportance  for 
tree  growth.  At  its  southern  limit,  a  species  grows  only  in  swamps 
or  along  watercourses.  The  water  in  the  soil  dissolves  the  mineral 
salts  so  as  to  form  sap  and  seems  tt  be  of  great  influence  on  the 
bacterial  life  in  the  soil. 

IX.  Heat  in  the  soil. 

It  is  derived  from  the  earth's  own  temperature,  from  chemical 
processes  in  soil  (notably  fermentation)  and  from  sun  rays.  In  tlie 
latter  ease,  the  angle  of  insolation,  the  duration  of  insolation,  the 
heat  capacity  of  soil,  the  color  of  soil,  the  porosity  of  soil  and  its 
vegetable  cover  serve  as  influencing  factors. 

A  cold  root  has  no  pumping  power.  Fine  root  fibres  die  from 
temperatures  which  fine  branches  easily  withstand.  The  actual 
influence  of  the  heat  in  the  soil  on  tree  growth  is  practically  un- 
known. The  opening  of  the  buds  in  spring  and  the  fall  of  leaves 
in  autumn  are  probably  connected  with  the  thermic  changes  occur- 
ring in  the  various  strata  of  the  soil. 

X.  Depth  of  soil. 

Flat  rooted  species  easily  obtain  the  superiority  over  tap- 
rooted  species  on  shallow  soil.  Tree  roots,  however,  are  not  apt 
to  penetrate  to  a  depth  greater  than  six  feet.  Shallow  soil  in- 
creases danger  from  fire,  drought,  storm.  A  tap  rooted  species, 
planted  on  shallow  soil,  produces  only  a  stunted  form.  Shallow 
soil  is  well  adapted  to  the  coppice  system,  in  case  of  broad  leaved 
tap  rooted   species. 

XL   Food  in  the  soil. 

A  tree,  like  a  crystal,  is  composed  of  various  chemical  elements. 
The  available  amount  of  that  necessary  element  which  happens  to 
occur  in  the  relatively  smallest  degree  determines  in  both  crystal 
and  ])lant,  the  rate  of  growth  actually  taking  place  (Liebig's  law). 
The  superabundance  of  one  component,  even  of  a  necessary  com- 
ponent, prevents,  on  the  other  hand,  the  local  existence  of  many 
species. 

The  ten  necessary  elements  found  within  a  plant  in  solid,  liquid 
or  gaseous  condition  are  0,  H,  C,  P,  Fe,  K,  Mg,  Ca,  N,  S. 

"  Roots  search  food  as  if  they  had  eyes," — a  rule  easily  proven 
in  any  nursery. 

XII.  Species  of  soil. 

a.  Rock.  Most  important  rock  formations  are:  Granite,  gneiss, 
limestone,  sandstone,  slate  and  trap. 

13 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Vertical  stratification  facilitates  decomposition  and  tree  growth. 
The  various  species  of  rock  differ  in  hardness,  porosity,  heat  con- 
duction, and  above  all  in  soluble  mineral  contents. 

b.  Quartz  sand.  Quartz  sand  is  unfertile  when  pure,  sinee  silicic 
acid  fails  to  be  digested  by  the  roots  and  fails  to  react  with  the 
acids  usually  found  in  the  soil.  Quartz  sand  is  loose,  has  small 
hygroscopicity,  small  capillarity  and  small  heat-retaining  capacity. 
It  is  hot  during  the  day  and  cold  at  night. 

c.  Lime.  Lime  when  pure  is  a  poor  soil,  although  not  quite 
as  dry  and  hot  as  sand.  Lime,  however,  mixed  with  loam  and 
clay    (so-called  marl)    forms  an  extremely  productive  soil. 

d.  Clay.  Clay  has  great  absorbing  and  hygroscopic  power.  It 
is  wet  and  cold.     Main  components  are  aluminum-silicates. 

e.  Loam.  Loam  is  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay — the  usual  soil 
in  agriculture  and  forestry.  It  is  usually  colored  by  iron  (red 
loam  at  Biltmore).  We  speak  of  a  sandy  loam  or  of  a  loamy  sand 
according  to  the  prevalence  of  one  or  the  other  component.  Loam 
soil  exhibits  a  happy  medium  of  qualities  favorable  to  tree  growth. 

f.  Humus.  Humus  results  from  the  decomposition  of  vegetable 
and  animal  matter  under  co-operation  of  bacteria,  fungi,  rain  worms 
(Darwin),  larvae.  Humus  forms  a.  solvent  of  mineral  plant  food. 
A  bad  conductor  of  heat  and  cold,  it  prevents  rapid  changes  of 
temperature  in  soil,  has  great  hygroscopicity  and  great  water- 
retaining  power  and  is  a  preventive  to  evaporation  of  soil  moisture. 

Mild  forest  humus  shows  a  basic  reaction,  whilst  the  sour  hiimus 
of  the  swamps  shows  an  acid  reaction. 

Unfavorable  is  the  dust  humus  formed  by  many  Ericaceae. 

XIII.  Physical  versus  chemical  qualities  of  soil. 

Agriculture  witiidraws  food  only  from  the  top  layer  of  soil. 
It  deprives  that  top  layer  of  its  rarest  and  most  valuable  com- 
ponents, by  the  annual  crop  of  grain  excessively  rich  in  nitrates, 
phosphates  and  potash.  The  porosity,  and  through  it  the  water 
capacity  and  the  heat  capacity  of  soil,  are  readily  controlled  on 
the  field  by  the  plow.  It  is  necessary  in  agriculture,  in  the  long 
run,  to  return  to  the  soil  in  the  shape  of  fertilizer  annually  as 
many  pounds  of  nitrates,  phosphates  and  potash  as  have  been 
removed  in  the  shape  of  crops  from  a  given  acre  of  land. 

The  productiveness  of  agriculture  depends,  above  all,  on  the 
chemical  qualities  of  the  soil  tilled.  A  crop  of  trees,  on  the  other 
hand,  takes  from  the  soil  very  little,  since  the  tree  consists  mainly 
of  C,  0,  H,  or  since  wood  is  nothing  but  air  solidified  by  sunshine. 
The  phosphates,   nitrates  and  potash   absorbed    by    the    tree    are 

14 


SYLVICULTURE. 

returned  to  the  soil  by  the  fall  of  branches,  leaves,  seeds,  flowers, 
etc. 

The  traces  of  chemical  fertility  locally  removed  in  the  shape 
of  logs  are,  in  addition,  counterbalanced  by  the  decomposing  influ- 
ence on  the  rock  exercised  by  roots  and  root -bacteria. 

Hence  it  is  not  likely  that  a  rotation  of  crops,  as  is  required 
in  fields,  has  any  advantages  in  the  case  of  forestry.  In  primeval 
woods,  we  know  that  Nature  allows  a  species  to  succeed  itself. 

The  physical  qualities  of  the  soil  preeminently  influence  the  tree 
species  and  the  rate  of  its  growth.  The  chemical  qualities  of  •  the 
soil  play  the  most  potent  role  in  the  case  of  agricultural  species. 

Soil  fit  for  agriculture  is  not  necessarily  good  forest  soil 
(prairies).  Soil  fit  for  forestry  (strong  north  slopes)  is  often 
utterly  unfit  for  farming. 

XIV.  Soil  covers. 

Soil  covers  are  either  dead  or  living.  Dead  soil  covers  are 
snow,  debris  of  leaves  and  twigs.  Living  soil  covers  consist  of 
mosses,  grasses,  etc. 

Snow  keeps  the  soil  warm,  prevents  rapid  changes  of  tempera- 
ture, prevents  young  plants  covered  by  it  from  perspiring,  prevents 
lifting  of  plants  by  frost. 

The  debris  on  the  ground  feed  millions  of  animals  and  fungi; 
they  harbor,  on  the  other  hand,  mice,  larvae  and  other  enemies  of 
plant  growth.  Debris  frequentlj'  prevent  reproduction  from  self- 
sown  seed  and  increase  the  severity  of  forest  fires.  Living  as  well 
as  dead  soil  cover  infiuences  evaporation  of  moisture,  porosity  of 
soil  and  water  drainage. 

XV.  Life  in  the  soil  (Compare  Swiss  L.  F.  F.  1904,  May  and 
June ) . 

The  soil  lives  like  a  plant  or  an  animal,  since  it  shows  con- 
tinuous changes  of  form  and  of  composition.  Very  little,  however, 
is  known  of  the  life  and  the  interdependence  of  millions  of  live  indi- 
viduals found  in  the  soil.  Certain  it  seems  that  tree  growth  is 
bound  on  the  presence  of  certain  fungi  and  bacteria  living  on  the 
roots  (Mycorrhiza).  Most  important  are  the  bacteria  capable  of 
digesting  the  nitrogen  of  the  subterranean  air.  Leguminous  plants 
(Clover,  Black  Locust)  are  beset  with  root  knobs,  containing  bacteria 
busily  engaged  in  the  assimilation  of  nitrogen.  The  hyphae  of  a 
fungus  called  Frankia  play  a  similar  role  on  the  root  knobs  of 
Alder  and  Sweet  Fern.  After  P.  C.  Mueller,  Spruce  will  grow  on 
poor  sand  lacking  nitrogen  if  Pine  is  mixed  with  it,  furnishing 
nitrogen  through  its  mycorrhiza. 

15 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Tlie  maximum  number  of  bacteria  is  said  to  be  found  two  ftet 
below  tlie  surface  of  the  ground,  and  none  exist  below  six  feet. 
The  number  of  bacteria  per  pound  of  soil  varies  from  one  hundred 
million  to  two  hundred  aoid  fifty  million. 

Important,  too,  in  plant  ecology  is  the  life  of  the  larger  anim.iN 
(worms,  insects,  centipeds)  changing  the  vegetable  matter  of  the 
soil  into  manure  proper,  mixing  mineral  soil  and  vegetable  matter, 
increasing  the  porosity,  drainage  and  aeration  and  neutralizing  the 
acids  of  the  soil.  Shade,  protection  from  wind  and  sufficient  moistu.e 
are  beneficial  to  animal  life  in  the  soil. 
Paragraph  III.     Influence  of  the  sylva  on  the  ecological  factors. 

The  influence  exerted  by  tlie  forest  on  local  climate  (heat,  air, 
precipitations,  etc.)  is  dwelt  upon  in  the  lectures  on  forest  policy. 
Whilst  the  ecological  factors  shoA\n  in  tlie  previous  paragraph 
exhibit  the  important  influence  which  the  soil  has'on  the  tree,  there 
exists  at  the  same  time,  although  to  a  lesser  degree,  an  influence 
of  the  tree  on  the  soil.  This  influence  is  invariably  such  as  to  facili- 
tate life  to  the  tree  itself  and  to  its  progeny.  The  production  of 
humus  is  the  main  source  of  that  influence. 

Governing  factors  are: 

A.  Leaf  canopy  overhead.  Evergreen  as  well  as  deciduous  woods 
annually  return  to  the  soil  by  the  leaf  fall  a  large  amount  of  dead 
matter  readily  assimilable.  Shade  bearers  furnish  a  better  humus 
than  light  demanders,  excluding,  at  the  same  time,  intensive  insola- 
tion, so  that  the  decomposition  of  the  leaf  carpet  and  the  evaporation 
of  the  soil  moisture  is  favorably  retarded. 

A  humus  formed  by  Beech,  Maple  and  Chestnut  is  considered 
especially  good.  Beech  is  justly  called  abroad  the  "  Mother  of  the 
Forest,"  owing  to  its  soil-improving  qualities.  The  leaf  canopy  is 
particularly  dense  during  the  thicket  and  the  pole-wood  stage.  Even 
light  demanders,  whilst  young,  improve  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  At 
a  higher  age,  when  the  light  demanders  place  themselves  far  apart 
one  from  another  (say  less  than  100  trees  per  acre),  the  humus  on 
the  ground  is  destroyed,  being  replaced  by  a  dense  and  impermeable 
matting  of  grasses  or  shrubs. 

Amongst  the  conifers,  Yellow  and  White  Pine  seem  to  furnish 
the  best  humus.     Spruce  humus  is  too  waxy. 

B.  Rate  of  disintegration  of  leaves. 

This  rate  depends  on  insolation,  on  heat  capacity  of  soil   (sand 

versus  clay),  on  atmospheric  humidity.     Uusually,  decomposition  of 

leaf  fall  takes  place  within  two  or  three  years.     The  thin  leaves  of 

the  shade  bearers  decompose  quicker  than  the  heavy  leaves  of  the 

16 


SYi.\  ICULTUEE. 

light  demandeis.  The  high  atmospheric  moisture  of  high  altitudes 
causes  accumulation  of  large  quantities  of  leaves.  In  the  tropics 
there  is  little  litter  on  the  ground. 

C.  Root  system. 

It  is  the  decaying  root  which  allows  the  precipitations  to  trickle 
down  to  the  lower  strata  of  soil.  Hence  tap  rooters  seem  more 
efficient  than  flat  rooters  in  converting  a  rapid  surface  drainage  into 
a  slow  underground  drainage.  Decomposing  the  rock  by  chemical 
action,  the  tap  root  forces  it  to  yield  its  soluble  salts. 

D.  Soil  improvement  through  root-bacteria  and  fungi. 

The  upper  layers  of  forest  soil  are  densely  peopled  with  the 
liyphae  of  basidiomycetes,  living  on  humus.  Leguminovis  trees 
(Locust,  Kentucky  Coffee  tree,  etc.)  by  their  root-bulbs  increase  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  Alders  seem  to  act  in  a  similar  way. 
On  abandoned  fields  in  Pisgah  forest  the  soil  is  improved  by  Su- 
mac, Sassafras,  Locust,  etc.  These  species  act  as  ushers  for  more 
exacting  forest  growth,  improving  the  physical  conditions  of  the 
soil. 

Very  little  is  known  about  the  nature  of  the  improvements. 


Paragraph  IV.    The  North  American  Sylva. 

TJie  northern  limit  of  the  forest  coincides  with  the  isothermal 
line,  30  degrees  Faht.,  which  lies  on  the  west  side  of  the  continent 
at  70  degrees  latitude  in  Alaska  (under  influence  of  the  .Japan  cur- 
rent), and  on  the  east  side  at  5.5  degrees  latitude  in  Labrador  and 
at  tlie  Hudson  Bay. 

The  rainfall  and,  consequently,  the  existence  of  forest  depends 
on  the  moist  sea  winds  supplied  by  the  Pacific,  the  Atlantic,  the  Gulf 
and  the  Great  Lakes.  A  cross-section  through  Xorth  America  at 
the  latitude  of  Lake  Michigan  and  Portland,  Oregon,  shows  the 
inter-dependence  between  the  lowest  gaps  in  the  moimtain  chains  and 
the  forest  on  the  next  mountain  chain  lying  to  leeward.  For  in- 
stance: lowest  gap  in  Coast  Range  at  3,000  ft.  above  sea  level;  no 
forest  in  Cascades  below  3,000  ft.;  lowest  gap  in  Cascades  at  4,000 
ft.  above  sea  level;  no  forest  in  P.lue  Mountains  below  4,000  ft.; 
lowest  gap  in  Blue  Mountains  at  5,000  ft.  above  sea  level;  no  forest 
in  Rockies  below  5,000  ft. 

Tlie  east  slope  of  the  Coast  Range,  Cascades,  Blue  Mountains  and 
Rockies  shoMs  little  or  no  forest,  and  tl;p  lowlands  to  the  east  nf 
the  mountain  chains  are  deserts  and  prairies. 


17 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Moist  sea  winds,  after  passing  one  chain  allow  the  forest  to 
grow  on  the  next  chain  only  above  the  altitude  of  the  gaps  in  the 
first  chain. 

The  following  table  shows  the  composition  of  the  forest  of  the 
United  States  and  of  Canada,  under  the  influence  ©f  the  climate: 

Percentage  of  forest  area  occupied  by: 

In  United  States.   In  Canada. 

Tropical  forest V-Zjc  ^% 

Sub-tropical  forest 15     %  0% 

Forest  of  the  moderately  warm  zone 75     %  10% 

Forest  of  the  moderately  cold  and  alpine  zone.  .  9ya7o  ^O^c 


The  United  States  contain  two  big  and  one  minor  forest  region, 
namely  the 

Atlantic   forest   region; 

North  Mexican  forest  region; 

Pacific  forest  region. 

The  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  forest  join  under  the  influence  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  winds  at  52  degrees  latitude,  in  Assiniboia.  There 
are  no  prairies  proper  north  of  this  latitude. 

The  tropical  forest  shows  no  seasons.  Its  species  are  evergreen. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  found  only  at  the  extreme  southern  point 
of  Florida. 

The  sub-tropical  foi-est  is  characterized  by  the  evergreen  broad- 
leaved  trees,  and  i;^  the  zone  of  rice  and  oranges,  extending  in  east- 
ern North  America  to  35  degrees,  in  western  North  America  to 
40   degrees,   latitude. 

The  moderately  warm  forest  region  is  the  zone  of  tlie  broad- 
leaved  deciduoiis  trees,  of  corn,  vine  and  wheat. 

The  moderately  cold  forest  region  is  that  of  the  evergreen 
conifers   too  cold  for  the  production  of  corn. 

In  North  Carolina  a  trip  from  the  coast  to  the  high  Balsams 
leads  the  traveler  from  the  northernmost  limit  of  the  sub-tropical 
through  the  moderately  ^varm  forest  region  into  the  southernmost 
limit  of  the  moderately  cold  forest  region  which  sets  in  at  about 
6,000  ft.  elevation. 

A.  The  Atlantic  forest. 

I.  Eastern  tropical  forest.  Mahogany  occiu's  only  as  a  small 
tree;  Palms  and  other  typically  tropical  orders  (Sapotaceae,  Ebon- 
aceae.  Euphorbia ceae,  Verbenaceae)  compose  the  forest.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  Southern  Florida  exliibits  only  the  extreme 
northern   occurrence  of   the   tropical   forest. 

IS 


SYLVICULTURK. 

II.  Eastern  sub-tropical  forest.  It  shows  evergreen  Oaks,  Mag- 
nolias, Persea,  etc.,  besides  the  Pines,  the  soil  being  too  poor  for  the 
formation  of  a  large  wintergreen  broad-leafed  forest.  The  winter 
temperature  averages  53  degrees  Faht.;  precipitations  are  heavy; 
relative  humidity  is  75  degrees.  Sabal  palmetto  is  a  characteristic 
weed.  Bald  Cypress  and  Cuban  Pine  are  characteristic  trees  of  the 
region.  Among  the  other  Pines,  the  Long  Leaf  Pine  is  the  most 
important,  associated  in  the  north  and  west  with  Pinus  clausa, 
eehinata,  taeda,  serotina,  glabra.  Liquidambar,  Nyssa  and  Fraxinus 
platycarpa  occur  in  swamps  at  the  edge  of  which  southern  White 
Gedar  frequently  appears. 

III.  Eastern  winter  bald  forest  of  the  moderately  warm  zone. 
It  is  fringed  at  the  south,  north  and  east  by  a  broad  belt  of  Pines, 
which  belt  connects  this  region  at  the  south  with  the  sub-tropical 
forest,  at  the  north  with  the  Fir  and  Spruce  forest  of  the  moderately 
cold  zone.  It  is  divided  into  a  northern  and  a  southern  half  by  the 
39th  degree  of  latitude.  Each  half  shows  an  Atlantic,  a  central 
and  a  prairial  sub-region. 

a.  South  Central  sub-region.  Traversed  by  the  Mississippi,  the 
sub-region  is  characterized  by  high  temperatures,  large  precipita- 
tions and  fine  soil,  w^hich  allow  of  the  best  development  of  broad- 
leaAed  woods  found  in  the  world.  Twenty-three  Oak  species,  eight 
Hickory  species,  two  Walnuts,  Buckeyes,  Chestnut,  Gums,  Cotton- 
woods,  Yellow  Poplar,  Sycamore,  Beech,  Maple,  Elm,  Bed  Cedar,  etc., 
stand  in  a  dense  undergrowth  formed  by  Dogwood,  Kalmia,  Rho- 
dodendron, Hazel,  Cherries,  Hawthorn,  Buckthorn,  Witch  Hazel,  etc. 

In  this  sub-region  the  heavy  seeded  broad-leaved  trees  obtain 
the  maximum  of  size,  quality  and  number  of  species  at  altitudes 
running  up  to  3,000  ft.  Higher  up  the  number  of  species  diminishes. 
At  5,000  ft.  only  Red  Oak,  Chestnut,  Beech,  Buckeye,  Sugar  Maple 
(resembling  north  central  subdivision)  are  found,  and  at  6,000  ft. 
the  Spruces  and  Firs  (southernmost  sentinels  of  moderately  cold 
zone)   set  in. 

b.  South  Atlantic  Sub-i'egion.  It  comprises  the  Eastern  foot- 
hills of  the  Alleghanies  (Piedmont  Plateau)  and  part  of  the  Coastal 
Plain.  Temperature  SVa  degrees  Faht.  less,  soil  poorer,  precipita- 
tions less  abundant  than  in  the  South  Central  Sub -region,  hence  much 
Pine  (taeda,  mitis,  rigida,  virginiana).  Only  ten  Oak  species;  White 
Cerlar  swamps;  broad-leaved  flora  otherwise  as  in  South  Central, 
Ijut  of  rather  inferior  development. 

c.  South  Prairial  Sub-region.  Extending  from  the  92nd  to  the 
102nd  degree  of  longitude,  the  forest  appears  poorer  than  the  annual 


SYLVICULTURE. 

temperature  and  the  anmuil  rainfall  seem  to  indicate;  a  discrepancy 
lietween  cause  and  effect,  possibly  due  to  forest  fires.  West  of  the 
05th  degree  of  longitude,  Oak,  Ash  and  Walnut  occur  along  rivers, 
especially  on  Eastern  banks.  Oak  also  appears  scattered  through 
the  depressions. 

d.  North  Central  Sub-region.  Precipitations  very  abundant 
from  South  as  well  as  North.  Average  winter  temperature  30  de- 
grees Faht.  Quick  change  of  temperature.  The  light-seeded,  broad- 
leaved  species  reach  maximum  in  this  section,  also  White  Pine  anJ 
Hemlock.  Six  Maples,  ^ve  Birches,  Elms  and  Lindens,  further  Ash, 
Butternut,  Red  and  White  Oak  compose  the  forest. 

e.  North  Atlantic  Sub-region.  Plenty  of  moisture,  the  moun- 
tains beiiAg  close  to  the  sea-shore,  but  not  so  much  as  in  Lake  states. 
Average  winter  temperature  34  degrees  Faht.  at  seashore.  Pinus 
rigida  and  mitis.  Beech,  Birch,  Chestnut,  Maples,  often-  replaced  by  - 
Poplar  and  Willow.  Spruce  sets  in  at  altitude  exceeding  1,000  ft., 
accompanied  by  Hemlock,  White  Cedar,  Red  Cedar,  White  Pine  and 
Tamarack. 

f.  North  Prairial  Sub-vegion.  Dry  summers,  blizzardy  winters 
and  more  sandy  soil.  No  Hemlock.  Red  Pine  and  .Jack  Pine  intrud- 
ing fom  North.  Scitib  Oak  openings.  On  best  soil  still  good  develop- 
ment of  Linden,  Maple,  Elm  and  Birch.  White  Pine  of  poorer  quality 
than  in  sub-region  "  d." 

IV.  Eastern  Evergreen  Forest  of  the  moderately  cold  zone. 

The  majority  of  this  zone  lies  in  Canada,  in  northern  Lake  states, 
Maine.  It  occurs  in  North  Carolina  at  6,000  ft.  elevation;  in  the 
Adircndacks  at  2,000  feet;  in  Maine  at  sea  level. 

The  region  occupies  a  big  belt  stretched  across  the  continent,  so 
that  Avestern  and  eastern,  flora  joins  hands  in  it.  A  typical  tree  of 
this  region,  the  "N^Hiite  Spruce,  often  forms  large  pure  forests.  Other 
species  of  the  zone  are  Red  Spruce,  Black  Spruce,  Balsam-fir,  Cotton- 
woods,  Cance  Birch,  Hemlock,  White  Cedar  and  Tamarack,  the  latter 
here  ootaining  its  optimum.     * 

B.  The  North  Mexican  forest. 

The  North  Mexican  Flora  intrudes,  coming  from  Mexic^,  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico.  It  is  different  from  the  Pacific  flora,  unimportant 
commercially,  interesting  only  botanically.  Forest  possible  only. at 
altitudes  exceeding  5,-500  feet.  Forest  proper — dense  forest — only  at 
8,000  feet. 

I.  North  Mexican  sub -tropical  forest. 

Characterized  by  Cactus,  Yvicca,  Agave  and  Mesquite  (Prosopis). 
Evergreen  Oaks  in  moist  valleys.    Madrona    (Arbutus),  a  beautiful 


SYLVICULTUEE. 

tree,  on  sunny  slopes  often  mixed  with  Manzanita  (Acrostaphylos 
pungens). 

II.  North  Mexican  forest  of  the  moderately  warm  zone. 

This  zone,  very  narroAv,  should  contain  winter-bald  broad-leaved 
species.  The  dryness  of  the  soil  and  of  the  air,  however,  allows  of 
their  occurrence  only  on  moist  ground  along  rivers.  Western  Walnut, 
Mexican  Ash,  Poplars  and  \Villows.  The  Pines  are  the  leading 
species  of  the  zone,  forming  huge  forests  at  altitudes  exceeding  G,000 
feet  elevation.  Some  of  these  Pines  are  northern  sentinels  from 
Mexico,  others  outposts  from  the  States.  Most  important  is  Pinus 
Chihuahuana,  in  Mexico  largely  used  for  timber,  up  to  80  feet  high, 
three  feet  in  diameter,  three  needles.  Pinus  Arizonica,  a  five-needled 
pine,  occurs  at  6,000  feet  elevation.  Pinus  reflexa,  locally  known  as 
White  Pine,  occupies  moist  dells  at  8,000  feet  elevation.  Nut  pines 
at  less6r  elevations  as  low  brush,  notably  Pinus  edulis,  monophjdla 
osteosperma. 

C.  The  Pacific  forest. 

Typical  difference  from  Atlantic  forest  lies  in  the  relative  lack 
(f  broad-leaved  woods — not  in  species,  but  in  area.  Tropical  forest 
is  absent,  possibly  due  to  lack  of  moisture  at  low  elevations  in 
Southern  California. 

I.  Pacific  sub-tropical  forest. 

Occupying  Southern  California.  This  zone  is  devoid  of  dense 
forests,  the  nortliern  edge  excepted.  ,!\vergreen  Oaks,  or  rather 
Winter  Green  Oaks  (Quercus  densiflora  is  leafless  during  dry  sum- 
nier)  dot  the  ground  in  park-like  groves.  California  Laurel  (Um- 
bellularia  calif ornica)  is  a  characteristic  tree  of  this  region,  growing 
up  to  100  feet  high.  Impenetrable  bush  thickets  cover  hot  aspects, 
formed  by  Leguminosae,  Labiatae,  Compositae,  Rosaceae,  et(?.  The  rare 
and  beautiful  Montery  Cypress  along  the  seashore.  Sequoia  sem- 
pervirens  is  the  biggest  tree  of  the  zone,  found  only  at  its  edge  in 
the  Coast  Range.  Pinus  insignis  known  as  Montery  Pine  is  valu- 
able on  sand  dunes. 

Pinus  tuberculata  (attenuata)  occurs  most  frequently  in  even- 
aged  woods.  Pinus  sabiniana.  Nut  or  Digger  Pine,  valuable  for  the 
Indians,  of  Olive-like  appearance,  is  mixed  in  the  Oak  parks  and  m 
the  Chaparal  thickets.  Another  Nut  Pine  is  Pinus  parry  ana,  grow- 
ing 30  feet  high.  Pseudotsuga  macrocarpa  on  St.  Bernardino  range. 
Eucalyptus  and  Accacia  were  successfully  introduced  from  Austra- 
lia, Oranges  and  Figs  from  the  Orient. 

II.  Pacific  forest  of  the  moderately  warm  zone. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

This  zone  covers  the  major  part  of  Oregon  and  Washington  and 
the  mountains  of  Northern  California.  It  is  characterized  by  very 
es-en  annual  temperature  and  high  precipitations.  Here  the  winter 
bald  broad-leaved  species  should  rule  supreme.  The  winter  bald 
Oaks  are  represented  in  Oregon  by  Quercus  garryana  (White  Oak), 
in  California  by  Quercus  Kellogii  (Black  Oak),  Fraxinus  Oregona, 
Acer  macrophyllum,  Populus  trichocarpa  (Black  Cottonwood,  the 
biggest  Cottonwood  of  the  Avorld)  occupy  the  bottom  land  along  the 
rivers;  further  Sorbus,  Amelanchier,  Crataegus,  Prunus,  Salix,  Aes- 
culus,  Alnus,  Acer,  Platanus,  Negundo,  Betula.  All  of  these  latter 
species  unimportant  commercially. 

In  strict  contrast  with  the  Atlantic  forest  of  the  same  zone, 
the  conifers  rule  in  importance,  foremost  among  them  the  Douglas 
I'^ir  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia)  which  stands  temperature  of  15  degrees 
Faht.  easily.  Best  development  on  west  slope  of  Coast-  Range.  In 
the  Rockies,  it  forms  only  summer  shoots  and  short  boles,  owing  to 
shorter  growing  season  and  lack  of  atmospheric  moisture.  In  Colo- 
rado, Arizona,  New  Jlexico  occurs  a  gray  variety.  In  the  Sierras  it 
appears  only  as  a  dependent  species. 

Pinus  ponderosa  (Yellow  Pine,  Bull  Pine).  Height  and  timber 
quality  depend  on  proximity  to  Pacific  Ocean.  Optimum  in  Siena 
Nevada,  where  trees  300  feet  high  are  frequently  found.  Very 
heavy  sap-wood.  Name  ponderosa  undeserved.  No  tree  of  the 
United  States  occupies  a  larger  territory  or  shows  greater  adaptabil- 
ity- 

Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  (Port  Orford  Cedar)  occupies  only  a 
^■ery  small  territory  close  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  Does  not  ascend 
njountains  to  over  1,500  feet.  Heavy  shade  bej^rer,  splendid  repro- 
duction. 

Thuja  plicata  (Red  Cedar  of  the  West)  up  to  170  feet  higli. 
Kare  in  California.  Best  development  in  Oregon  and  Washington  and 
Northern  Idaho,  where  it  occupies  only  the  moister  coves.  Boles 
very  tapering;   shade  bearing;   thin  bark. 

Libocedrus  decurrens  (White  Cedar,  Bastard  Cedar)  on  west 
slope  of  the  Sierras  at  medium  elevations,  where  the  tree  is  mixed 
with  Abies  concolor.  Yellow  and  Sugar  Pine.  Regeneration  easy, 
often  in  ])laces  previously  occupied  by  the  Pines. 

Pinus  lambertiana  (Sugar  Pine),  a  Wliite  Pine  since  it  has  five 
needles  in  a  sheath.  Specific  gravity  even  less  than  that  of  Eastern 
White  Pine  (Pinus  strobusl.  The  biggest  Pine  of  the  world.  Veiy 
large  cones.  Optimum  in  Sierras  at  5,000  feet  elevation ;  occurs  often 
with   Sequoia,  Libocedrus,  Abies   concolor.   Yellow  Pine,  Pinus  Jef- 

22 


SYLVICULTURE,  , 

freyi.  Tlie  latter,  a  very  close  relative  to  poiiderosa  and  distin- 
guished from  it  by  bluish  shoots  and  needles  bent  towards  the 
shoots, -occupies  the  lower  Sugar  Pine  belt.  It  prefers  moist  ground 
and  reaches  only  one-half  the  size  of  ponderosa. 

IVIayr  groups  the  above  trees  as  follows,  according  to  their  de- 
mands on  moisture:   . 

Demands  on    soil   moisture: 

1.  Libocedrus  decurrens, 

2.  Pinus  jeffreyi, 

3.  Abies  concolor, 

4.  Pinus  lambertiana, 

5.  Pinus  ponderosa. 
Demands  on  air  moisture: 

1.  Abjes  concolor, 

2.  Pinus  lambertiana, 

3.  Pinus  jelFreyi, 

4.  Libocedrus  decurrens, 

5.  Pinus  ponderosa. 

Abies  grandis  (White  Fir  of  Northern  Pacific  Coast).  The  only 
fir  on  Vancouver  Island.  Optimum  at  coast  in  Oregon  where  it 
glows  up.  to  300  feet  high,  standing  alongside  gigantic  Cottonwoods ; 
extends  eastward  across  the  Northern  Rockies,  and  is  the  first  Pa- 
cific fir  met  by  the  traveller  going  west  on  the  Northern  Pacific. 
Requires  moist  soil. 

Abies  concolor  (White  Fir  of  Colorado  and  of  the  Sierras). 
Running  south  to  the  San  Bernardino  mountains,  where  it  occupies 
elevations  of  up  to  10,000  feet.  Traversing  Nevada,  it  occurs  in 
Colorado  (gardener's  variety  glauca).  It  accompanies  Sugar  Pine 
and  Bigtree.  After  IMuir,  always  mixed  with  Abies  ma'gnifica,  occur- 
ing  at  altitudes  ranging  between  5,000  feet  and  8,000  feet. 

Abies  bracteata  (Santa  Lucia  fir  of  high  mountains)  occurs  in 
Southern  California  in  moist  cool  dells. 

Tsuga  heterophylla  (Black  Hemlock  of  low  elevations).  A  fine 
tree,  the  progeny  of  which  forms  a  dense  undergrowth  underneath 
Douglas  fir.  Heavy  shade  bearer,  requiring  plenty  of  moisture,  oc- 
curring in  Alaska,  Coast  range  and  Cascades. 

Picea  sitchensis  (Tideland  Spruce).  Along  coast  on  very  moist 
soil  in  ^Vashington,  on  dryer  soil  in  Alaska,  very  shade  bearing  and 
branchy.     Stinging  needles.     Up  to  200  feet  high. 

Sequoia  Washingtoniana  (Bigtree).  Occurring  only  in  the  Sierraa 
in  scattered  groups  at  elevations  ranging  from  4,000  to  7,000  feet.. 

23 


SYLVICULTURE. 

I'.'normous    seeding    capacity    and    sprouting    capacity.     Average    di- 
ameter 20  feet,  height  275  feet,  age  up  to  4,000  years. 

IIL  Pacific  forest  of  moderately  cold  zone. 

Tliis  zone  is  economically  of  no  importance,  although  it  is  the 
forest  zone  proper,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  agriculture  within 
this  zone.  It  is  "  The  Canadian  Forest  Zone."  It  lies  in  the  Sierras 
at  8,000  feet,  in  the  Cascades  at  4,000  feet,  and  in  Alaska  at  seashore. 
The  forests  of  the  Northern  Rocky  mountains  belong  to  it  preferably. 

Pinus  murrayana  (Lodgepole  Pine).  Shade  bearing,  in  close 
stands,  very  branchy,  verj^  sappy,  retaining  cones,  easily  destroyed 
by  fire,  closely  related  'lo  the  Jack  Pine  of  the  east.  Frequent  on 
old  burns,  typical  for  Yellowstone  Park,  going  south  to  Arizona. 

Larix  oecidentalis  (Western  Tamarack).  Splendid  lumber  tree, 
often  in  pure  forests,  optimum  in  Montana,  natural  regeneration 
easy,  rapid  height  growth,  little  sap  wood,  timber  equal  to  L<mg 
Leaf  Pine. 

Pinus  flexilis  (Limber  ^'Vliite  Pine).  More  branchy  and  much 
shorter  than  eastern  White  Pine;  forms  open  forests  on  south  slopes 
of  Sierras  and  in  Xevada  at  7,000  feet  elevation:  from  ilontana  it 
extends  southward  to  Colorado. 

Pirius  monticola  (Mountain  '\Miite  Pine).  In  Cascades,  British 
Columbia,  Idaho,  Montana,  in  the  latter  state  more  on  slopes  drain- 
ing westward. 

Abies  nobolis,  amabilis,  magnifica,  the  Red  Firs  of  the  west. 
Magnifica  knoAvn  in  California  as  Larch.  The  two  first  named  often 
associated  with  Abies  grandis  and  more  frequent  in  Washington  and 
Oregon  t,han  in  California.  Amabilis  extends  into  Alaska.  Red  Firs 
are  lacking  in  the  Rockies.     Xeedles  are  dark. 

Picea  engelmanni  CWliite  Spruce).  At  home  in  middle  and 
southei'n  Rockies,  on  northern  slopes  at  altitudes  averaging  10.000 
'feet.  • 

Picea  parryana  (Colorado  Blue  Spruce).  Needles  very  pointed 
and  stinging,  of  a  bluish  tint.     Occupies  moist  ground. 

IV.  Pacific  forest  of  the  Alpine  region. 

Typical  trees  are: 

Pinus  albicaiilis  (Dwarf  White  Pine).  Occurring  in  the  Cascades 
and  the  Rockies  (Utah). 

Pinus  balfouriana  and  aristata  (Fcx-Tail  Pine).  White  Pine 
found  in  California  at  8,000  feet  id  12,000  feet  elevation:  twigs  tliin, 
retaining  needles  for  many  years. 

24 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Abies  lasiocarpa  (Ealsam).  At  edge  of  tree  growth  only  a 
shrub.  In  Colorado  at  lower,  warmer  situations  a  valuable  tree. 
Occurs  in  all  states  of  the  west. 

Larix  Ij-allii  (Larch  of  British  Columbia).  Occurs  here  and  there 
in  Washington,  Idaho  and  Montana,  at  very  high  altitudes. 

Tsuga  raertensiana  (Hemlock).  A  storm-battered  hemlock,  at 
liigh  altitudes  in  Sierras,  Cascades,  Montana.  A  branchy  tree  up  to 
ICO  feet  high,  inaccessible  and  hence  of  no  value. 

Fcragraph  V.     General  definitions  and  explanations. 

A.  In  Europe,  under  the  term  "  Wood  "  is  understood  Tin  aggre- 
gate of  trees  of  such  uniform  character  that  it  can  be  subjected  to 
the  same  manner  of  treatment.  In  the  American  virgin  forests, 
"  woods  "  are  rare.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  term  "  woods  "  as  well 
as  the  term  "  foi'ests  "  has  no  definite  meaning  in  America.  A  fores- 
ter should  keep  in  mind,  however,  that  a  plantation  or  a  natural 
regeneration,  whatever  its  age  and  its  condition,  must  be  classed 
under  the  heading  "  forests." 

A  "  group  "  of  trees  consists  of  even-aged  specimens  of  the  same 
species  and  is  larger  than  a  bunch,  clump,  or  cluster.  No  recog-  i 
nized  definitions  of  the  term  "group  "  and  "clump"  are  at  hand,  un- 
fortunately, based  on  the  space  or  the  acreage  covered  by  them  as 
units.  Groups,  as  understood  in  the  following  pages,  are  distinct 
aggregates  of  tre'?s  covering  J^  to  4  acres. 

B.  Pure  forests,  pure  woods,  pure  groups  or  bunches  are  such 
as  contain  one  timber  species  only,  5  per  cent,  admixture  being 
permissible.  Species  able  to  form  pure  forests  are  termed  gregari- 
ous or  ruling  species,  sub-divided  into  distinctly  ruling  species,  which 
are  usually  found  in  pure  stands,  and  conditionally  ruling  species, 
which  are  occasionally  found  in  pure  stands.  .  '    • 

I.  After  Drude,  the  participation  of  a  species  as  a  mess-mate  at 
the  forest  table  is  expressed  by  the  following  terminology: 

a.  Social  species,  denoting  the  main  character,  the  striking 
feature  (in  numbers  and  volume)  of  the  forest;  tlie  rank  and  file 
of  the  forest. 

b.  Gregarious  species,  occurring  in  clumps  and  groups,  island 
like; 

c.  Copious  species,  interspersed  with  others,  the  degree  of  fre- 
quency being  interpreted  by  exponents,  f.  i.,  copious^  copious^,  copi- 
ous' ; 

d.  Sparse   species,   occurring   isolated   and   in   single    specimens; 

e.  Solitary   species,  very  isolated   and  very  rare. 


25 


BQBEST  RESOURCES 


SYLVICULTURE. 

II.  It  might  be  preferable  to  express  the  ratio  of  the  participa- 
tion in  per  cent. 

Social,  forming  60%  and  over  of  growing  stock. 
Gregarious,  forming  40%  and  over  of  growing  stock. 
Copious,  forming  20%  and  over  of  growing  stock. 
Sparse,  forming  1%  and  over  of  growing  stock. 
Solitary,  forming  less  than  1%  of  growing  stock. 
Intermediate  stages  might  be  indicated  by  a  union  of  tlie  given 
designations,  f.  i.,  "  social-gregarious." 

III.  The  configuration  of  the  ground  and  the  rapidity  of  its 
cliange  vitally  influence  the  possibilities  of  a  species  as  a  component 
of  the  forest. 

IV.  Species  which  are  not,  or  Avhich  are  locally  not,  "ruling". 
species  are  called  "  dependent  "  species. 

A  species  might  be  ruling  in  North  Carolina,  while  it  is  depend- 
ent in  South  Carolina.  The  distribution  of  the  species  is  limited 
by  its  demands  on  soil  and  climate.  Far  away  from  the  center  of 
distribution  a  species  is  likely  to  be  dependent. 

V.  The  ruling  species  in  the  south  are:  Long  Leaf  Pine,  Bald 
Cypress,  Loblolly  Pine,  Short  Leaf  Pine,  Sweet  Gum,  Post  Oak, 
Cottonwoods,  Chestnut. 

The  ruling  species  in  the  west  are:  Lodgepole  Pine,  Pinus  ponde- 
rosa,  Douglas  Fir,  White  Fir  (Abies  grandis),  Engelmann's  Spruce, 
Western  White  Pine,  Port  Orford  Cedar,  Redwood,  Sitka  Spruce. 

VI.  Obviously  the  meek  species  are  those  that  conquer  the  globe. 
With  the  inroads  of  civilization  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and 
especially  on  the  water  capacity  of  the  soil,  these  meek  species 
obtain  additional  chances  to  supersede  the  exacting  species. 

C.  Weapons  of  the  species  in  the  struggle  for  existence  are: 

I.  Shade-bearing  qualities. 

II.  Modesty  as  regards  the  fertility  of  soil,  the  moisture  and  the 
heat  during  the  period  of  vegetation. 

III.  Power  of  resistance  to  storm,  sleet,  snow,  late  and  early 
frosts,  droughts,  fire,  etc. 

IV.  Immvmity  from  forest  insects  and  forest  fungi. 

V.  Longevity.  Oak  lives  longer  than  Beech;  Sequoia  longest  of 
all. 

VI.  Reproductive  power,  especially  reproductive  power  from 
stumps,  frequency  and  richness  of  seed  years. 

VII.  Portability  and  sensitiveness  of  seeds;  number  of  enemies 
of  seeds;  germinating  percentage  of  seeds. 

VIII.  Rapidity  of  height  growth  in  early  youth. 

26 


SYLVICULTURE. 

D.  Density  of  stand.  Every  ruling  species  shows  a  particular 
density  of  cover  and  a  particular  ramification  during  every  stage 
of  its  life,  when  grown  in  pure  forests. 

I.  Density  of  leaf  cover  overhead. 

a.  The  form  of  the  crown  of  the  individual  depends  on  side- 
shade,  topshade,  neighborly  friction  and  quality  of  soil. 

b.  Natural  regeneration  causes  a  greater  density  of  cover  than 
artificial  regeneration,  certainly  during  the  thicket  and  pole  staj^e. 
Other  infiuencing  factors  are:  quality  of  the  soil,  age  of  the  forest, 
inroads  by  snow  break,  wind  fall,  fire,  deer,  fungi,  insects. 

c  A  dense  canopy  overhead  produces  clear  boled  timber  and 
allows  of  a  heavy  layer  of  humus  on  the  ground.  The  method  of 
regeneration  distinctly  influences  the  value  of  the  timber  to  be 
formed. 

II.  Number  of  trees  per  acre. 

Under  normal  conditions  an  acre  of  pure  forest  contains  the 
more  specimens  of  equal  height  or  diameter,  the  better  the  quahty 
of  the  soil  and  the'  better  the  climate;  and  the  more  specimens  oi 
the  same  age,  the  poorer  these  factors  are.  For  example-Yellow 
Pine  Forests: 

Number  of  trees  per  acre. 
Soil  Boles  75'  long.  Diameter  12."  Age  60  yrs. 

I  quality...  320  240  380 

II  quality...  240  215  460 

III  quality...  190  190  540 

During  .the  pole  stage  and  tree  stage  shade  bearers  exhibit  per 
acre  of  ground  about  50%  more  trees  than  light  demanders. 

The  following  curve  illustrates  the  interdependence  between  age 
and  number  of  trees  per  acre: 

10,000   \ 
.5,000    '. 
Number     2,500 
1.000 
of  900 

800  *  . 

trees  700  ■  . 

600  •  . 

per     500 
400 
acre     300  '  •  .  ^ 

200  *  •  ♦  .  . 

100 
0 


0  10  20  30  40  50  CO  70  SO  90  100  120  130  140  150  160  170  180 
Number  of  years  old. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

III.  Growing  space  of  a  tree. 

In  their  early  youth  all  species  stand  or  even  desire  a  dense 
cover  overhead.  When  the  food  supply  stored  in  the  seed  shell  is 
consumed,  however,  the  seedling  requires  light  to  digest  its  food. 
With  increasing  age,  the  tree  boles  getting  longer,  the  crowns  ruii 
and  beat  one  another  intensely,  swaying  pendulum  fashion  in  the 
wind.  As  a  consequence  each  crown  is  surrounded  with  an  air  space, 
the  relative  width  of  which  depends  largely  on  the  length  and  tin 
flexibility  of  the  bole.  It  might  be  stated  that  the  growing  space 
of  a  tree  is  a  function  of  the  square  of  the  gradually  lengthening 
bole. 

Trees  differ  in  the  ease  with  which  warring  neighbors  lose  their 
buds  and  shoots.  Oak,  for  example,  loses  its  May  shoots  easily, 
whilst  Beech,  struggling  with  Oak,  loses  a  few  leaves  only  along  its 
flexile  swaying  twigs.  In  heavy  storms  Yellow  Pine  often  loses 
whole  branches.  White  Pine,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  easily 
lose  its  shoots.  The  top  shoots  of  the  taller  individuals  are  immune 
from  harm.  Thus  a  tree,  once  in  the  lead  of  its  competitors,  has  a 
good  chance  to  retain  the  lead  over  them. 

IV.  Grades  of  density  of  cover  are:  Pressed  cover.  Close  cover. 
Light  cover  and  Open  cover.  No  strict  definition  of  these  tern.s  can 
^•e  given.  Obviously  the  number  of  stems  under  pressed  conditions 
is  vcrj'  lai-ge. 

Indications  of  a  normal  cover  are: 

a.  Relation  betw^een  length  of  crown  and  length  of  bole. 

b.  Normal  diameter  growth  and  height  growth. 

c.  Proper  participation  of  the  various  diameter  classes  in  the 
volume  of  wood  at  hand.  The  normal  participation  in  a  pure,  even- 
aged  wood  is  for  the  , 

1st.  Diameter  class — 40%  of  total  volume. 
2nd.  Diameter  class — 24%  of  total  volume. 
3rd.  Diameter  class — 17%  of  total  volume. 
4th.  Diameter  class — 12%  of  total  volume. 
5th.  Diameter  class — •  7%  of  total  volume. 

If  cover  overhead  is  too  dense,  the  first  class  shows  over  40%  of 
volume  and  Aice  versa. 

V.  In  nature,  the  same  causes  necessarily  have  the  same  result. 
The  causes  of  timber  production  are  soil  and  atmospheric  food  "  fall- 
ing "  onto  the  soil  in  the  shape  of  sunshine,  moisture  and  air.  Hence, 
whatever  the  species  are,  it  seems  as  if  the  acre  of  ground,  fully 
stocked,  must  produce  on  the  annual  average  the  same  weight  of 
timber — not   the    same    volume    of    timber.     Thus,    ceteris    paribus, 

28 


SYLVICULTURE. 

species  of  ligiit  siJeeific  gravity  are  the  best  volume  producers.  Since, 
however,  shade-bearing  species  are  better  digesters  of  atmospheric 
and  terrestrial  food,  the  largest  growth  per  acre  per  annum  is 
obtained  from  shade  bearers  of  light  weight  (Hemlock,  Spruce,  Fir, 
White  Pine). 

In  the  virgin  forest  the  annual  production  of  wood  fibre  is 
exactly  offset  by  the  annual  death  and  decay  of  wood  fibre.  Tiie 
virgin  forest  is  a  forest  seemingly  in  economic  stagnation. 

VI.  The  sectional  area  of  a  tree  usually  measured  chest  high 
(41/2  feet  above  groimd),  inclusive  of  bark,  is  the  area  of  the  circlo 
corresponding  with  the  diameter  measured  chest  high. 

The  sectional  area  of  an  acre  of  forest  is  the  sum  total  of  the 
sectional  areas  of  the  trees  standing  thereon.  It  rarely  exceeds  one- 
half  per  cent,  of  the  acreage  of  the  ground,  or  218  square  feet 
per  acre. 

E.  Rotation. 

Under  rotation  is  understood  the  number  of  years  which  a  seed- 
ling requires  to  reach  maturity.  For  a  second  growth  in  America, 
rotations  will  vary  in  length  from  60  years  to  160  years,  according  to 
the  species  and  local  conditions.  During  a  rotation  a  wood  lot  may 
pass  through  the  cleaning  stages,  thinning  stages,  the  stage  of  pre- 
paratory cutting,  the  seed-cutting  stage  and  the  stage  of  final 
removal. 

F.  Size  classes  and  age  classes. 

I.  Pinchot  adopts  the  following  seven  age  classes  or  size  classes 
of  trees  in  his  "Primer:" 

a.  Seedlings,  up  to  3  feet  high. 

1).  Small  saplings,  from  3  to  10  feet  high. 

c.  Large  saplings,  10  feet  high  to  4  inches  diameter. 

d.  Small  poles,  from  4  inches  to  8  inches  diameter. 

e.  Large  poles,  from  8  inches  to  12  inches  diameter. 

f.  Standards,  from  12  inches  to  24  inches  diameter. 
1-.  Veterans,  over  24  inches  diameter. 

II.  During  the  sapling  stage,  the  specimens  form  a  thicket;  dur- 
ing the  pole  stage,  they  form  a  polewood;  and  during  the  standard 
and  veteran  stage,  a  tree  forest. 

III.  During  the  thinning  stage  (pole  stages)  of  trees  in  an  even- 
aged  wood,  the  following  classes  of  mess-mates  might  be  distin- 
guished : 

a.  After  Schlich,  "  Dominant,"'  "  Dominated,"  "  Suppressed,  yet 
alivi\"  and  "Dead." 

b.  After  Pinchot,  "  Dominant,"  "  Retarded,"  and  "  Overtopped." 

29 


SYLVICULTURE. 

c.  The  usual  classification,  adopted  by  German  foresters  after 
Kraft't  is: 

1.  Predominating  trees,  having  crown  strikingly  well  developed. 

2.  Dominating  trees,  with  well-developed  crowns,  forming  the 
main  cover  overhead. 

3.  Condominating  trees,  with  crowns  of  a  fairly  normal  form, 
but  of  somewhat  poor  vigor,  carrying,  however,  their  crowns  within 
the  level  of  the  main  canopy. 

4.  Dominated  trees  with  crowns  more  or  less  crippled  or  pressed 
from  the  sides,  subdivided  into  two  sub-classes,  viz.: 

a.  Most  of  crown  free  from  cover  overhead. 

b.  Most  of  crown  underneath  cover  overhead. 

5.  Trees  absolutely  suppi'essed,  standing  entirely  under  the  cover 
of  others. 

G.  Even  aged  woods: 

Woods,  the  components  of  which  differ  in  age  by  less  tlian  2.") 
years,  are  called  "  even -aged  woods." 

In  America,  even-aged  woods  and  hence  tlie  advisability  of  thin- 
ning is  mighty  rare.  The  struggle  for  existence  between  even-aged 
comrades  can  readily  be  alleviated  by  the  forester's  interference. 

In  America,  even-aged  woods  are  formed,  for  instance: 

I.  Bj^   Long  Leaf   and  by   Cuban   Pine. 

II.  By  Jack   Pine   and  Lodgepole   Pine. 
III., By  Bald  Cypress. 

IV.  By  Douglas   Fir. 

V.  By  Pinus  echinata,  taeda,  strobus,  ponderosa,  virginiana  on 
abandoned  fields. 

H.  Distribution  of  species. 

The  horizontal  distribution  of  species  depends  on  the  latitude 
and  the  proximity  of  the  ocean,  or  better  on  sea  winds,  and  pro- 
ceeds parallel  with  the  vertical  distribution.  In  the  neigliborhood 
of   Biltmore,   the   following   altitudes    may    be  given: 

Spruce  and  Fir — 5,500  ft. 

Beech— 2,000  to  6,000  ft. 

Hemlock— 2,000  to  3,800  ft. 

Chestnut— 2,000  to  5,000   ft. 

Chestnut   Oak— 2,000   to  4,000   ft. 

Pignut  Hickory— 3,000   ft. 

Bitter-nut   Hickory— 3,800   ft. 

Black  Cherry— 3,500  to  5,000  ft. 

Pinus  virginiana— 2,000  to  2.500  ft. 
|Tinus  strobus— 2,000  to  3,500  ft. 

30 


SYLVICULTLRE. 

Yellow  Poplar— 2,000  to  4,000  ft. 

Buckeye— 3,000  to  li.OOO  ft. 

Red  Oak— 2,000  to  5,.500  ft. 

White  Oak— 2,000  to  5,000  ft, 

Spanish  Oak— 2,000  to  3,800  ft. 

Post  Oak— 2,000  to  3,000  ft. 

Black  Oak— 2,000  to  3,600  ft. 

Echinata— 2,000  to  2,600  ft. 

Eigida— 2,000  to  3,500  ft. 

Pungens— 4,500   ft. 

Locust— 2,000  to  5,500  ft. 

Black  Gum— 2,000   to  4,000  ft. 

Every  species  thrives  best  in  certain  centers,  which  are  few  in 
the  case  of  the  exacting  and  numerous  in  the  case  of  modest 
species  like  yellow  Pine,  both  east  and  west. 

Aside    from    vertical    and    horizontal    elevation,    the    influence      :i 
distribution  exercised  by  storm,  snow  and  sleet  is  very  marked. 

Paragraph  VI.     Light  demanders  and  shade  bearers. 

A.  A  plant  is  termed  the  more  shade  bearing  or  tolerant  of 
shade,  the  less  light  it  requires  for  the  functions  of  assimilation, 
breathing,  perspiration,  flowering  and  fruiting.  Only  parasites  live 
without  light,  and  hence  without  chlorophyl. 

B.  The  following  characteristics,  in  their  aggregate  and  not 
singly,  may  lead  the  observer  to  classify  a  tree  as  a  shade  bearer: 

L  Dense  leaf  canopy. 

II.  Leaves  thin,  dark,  flat,  more  numerous,  not  glossy,  not 
downy,  not  bunched  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  with  blades  spread 
horizontally,  withering  quickly  after  separation  from  the  branch. 

III.  Thin  bark. 

IV.  Thick  sapwood. 

V.  Branches  persistent,  spread  flat  or  pointing  downward,  com- 
paratively thin  and  interlacing.     Crowns  long. 

VI.  Little  live  soil  cover,  and  a  heavy  layer  of  dead  humus' 
underneath  leaf  canop3^ 

VII.  Dense  stand  of  trees. 

C.  Factors  influencing  the  relative  demand  for  light  within  one 
and  the  same  species  are: 

I.  Lfrtitude  and  hence  intensity  of  insolation. 

II.  Exposure. 

III.  Fertility  of  soil,  and  heMce  digestive  power. 

IV.  Age  of  plants. 

31 


SYLVICULTURE. 

V.  Distance  between  tlie  crown  levels  of  the  shaded  and  of  the 
shading  trees. 

Instances  for  I  and  III. 
White    J*ine    is,    in    the    south,    almost    shade    bearing;    in    the 
north  it  is  almost  light  demanding. 

Yellow  Poplar  on  fertile  soil  stands  heavy  shading  overhead. 

D.   Woody  species  in   their  relative  order  of  resistance  against 
heavy    shading  might   be   arranged   as   follows: 

I.  Relative  order  for  the  southern  Appalachians: 

Witch  Hazel. 

Dogwood. 

Fir. 

Hemlock. 

Hard  Maple. 

Chinquapin. 

Black  Gum. 

Spruce. 

Soft  Maple. 

White  Pine. 

Pinus  virginiana. 

Linden. 

Chestnut. 

Red  Oak. 

White  Oak. 

Chestnut  Oak. 

Ash. 

Spanish  Oak. 

Black   Oak. 

Finger  Oak. 

Post  Oak. 

Pinns  rigida. 

Black  Locust. 

Poplar. 

Hickory. 

Pinus  eehinata. 

Sassafras. 

irnfortunately,    at   Biltmore.    shade   bearers   are   usually    weeds 
interfering  Avith  the  valuable  species. 

Tl.  Pinchot  gives  the  following  schedule  for  the  Adirondacks: 

Hard  Maple. 

Beech. 

Hemlock. 

32 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Spruce. 

Balsam. 

Soft  Maple. 

Birch. 

White  Pine   (intermediate). 

Black   Cherry. 

Black  and  ^Yllite  Ash. 

Bird  Cherry. 

Cottonwood. 

Tamarack. 

The  trees  above  White  Pine  Pinchot  calls  "  tolerant  "  and  those 
below  White  Pine  "  intolerant  of  shade." 

ill.  The  leading  species  of  the  United  States,  classed  according 
to  light  or  shade-demanding  qualities  are: 

a.  Eastern  Conifers: 

Long  Tjcaf  Pine — distinctly  intolerant  of  shade. 

Echinata — light  demander. 

Taeda — intermediate. 

Virginiana — intermediate. 

Rigida — not  so  much  as  ^arginiana. 

Bald  Cypress-— light  demander. 

Chamaecyparis  spheroidea — shade  bearer. 

Spruce — fair  shade  bearer. 

Balsam — intense  shade  bearer.    ■ 

Hemlock — intense  shade  bearer. 

Tamarack — light    demander. 

Arbor  vitae — shade  bearer. 

^^Tiite  Pine — intermediate. 

Jack  Pine — light  demanding  towards  intermediate. 

Norway  Pine — light  demander. 

b.  Eastern  hardwoods: 
Beech — shade  bearer. 
Hard  ]\Iaple — shade  bearer. 
Silver  Maple — shade  bearer. 
Red  Maple — shade  bearer. 
Black  Gum — shade  bearer. 
Sourwood — light  demander. 
Locust— light  demander. 
Yellow  Poplar — light   demander. 
Chestnut — intermediate. 

Oaks — light  demanders  (^^'hite  and  Red  Oak  stand  lots  of  shade 
when  young). 

33 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Elm — sliade  bearer. 

Birch — light  demander  or  intermediate. 

Bhick  wahiut — intermediate. 

Linden — shade  bearer. 

L'mbrella  tree — less  light  demanding  than  Yellow  Poplar. 

Cucumber — less  light  demanding  than  Y'ellow  Poplar. 

Sycamore — medium   shade  bearer. 

\Villows  and  Cottonwoods — light  demanders. 

Liquidambar — light  demander. 

Hickories — light  demanders. 

c.   Western   Conifers: 

Douglas  Fir — intermediate. 

Ponderosa — light  demander. 

Xut  Pines — intense  light  demanders. 

Lodgepole  Pine — intermediate. 

Sugar  Pine- — intense  light  demander. 
Xawson  Cypress — intense  shade  bearer. 

Tide-land  Spruce — shade  bearer. 

Redwood — shade  bearer. 

Western  Hemlock — intense   shade  bearer. 

Western  Firs — intense  sliade  bearers. 

Larch — intense  light  demander. 

Engelmann's  Spruce — shade  bearer. 

Colorado  Blue  Spruce — shade  bearer. 
Paragraph  VII.     Pure  versus  mixed  woods. 

A.  Conditions  inviting  pure  woods  and  mixed  woods. 

Conifers  are  more  apt  to  grow  in  pure  forests,  owing  to  their 
greater  modesty.  Abroad,  up  to  a  very  recent  time,  the  desire  of 
the  forester  was  to  raise  mixed  woods,  but  quite  recently  the 
"  Danish  propaganda  "  has  turned  the  minds  of  some  foresters  back 
to  pure  woods. 

Severe  climatic  conditions  and  poor  soil  conditions  invariably 
give  one  species  the  preponderance,  for  example:  Bald  Cypress  rules 
in  the  swamps  of  the  South,  Tamarack  in  those  of  the  North;  Nul 
Pines  prevail  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  Southwest;  Long  Leaf 
Pine  on  poor  sand  in  the  South;  Cuban  Pine  in  half  swamps  of  the 
South ;  Red  Spruce  on  the  "  Black  Slopes "  of  the  Adirondacks : 
White  Spruce  in  Northern  Canada;  Lodgepole  Pines  on  old  burns; 
Jack  Pine  on  poor  sand  in  the  Lake  States. 

Pure   forests   are   sometimes   in  the   interest   of  the   owner,   for 
example:    Pure    Spruce    near   paper    mills;    Hickory     near     carriage 
works;   Tan  Bark  Oak  near  tanneries. 
34 


SYLVICULTURE. 

A  liigii  rotation  often  leads  to  a  pure  forest,  a  short-lived 
admixture  being  gradually  pressed  out. 

Abroad  the  forester  is  required  to  maintain  the  fertility  and 
productiveness  of  the  soil.  Since  light-demanding  species  allow 
the  soil  to  be  baked  by  the  sun  during  the  pole  and  tree  stage 
of  the  forest  when  grown  purely,  admixture  of  shade  bearers  under 
such  conditions  is  advisable,  obtained,  for  instance,  by  underplanting 
Yellow  Pine  with  Beech,  when  Pine  is  50  years  old. 

B.  Kinds  of  mixture. 

A  mixture  may  be  temporary  or  permanent;  a  mixture  may 
be  even  aged  or  uneven  aged;  the  species  may  or  may  not  differ 
in  lieight  growth;  the  mixture  may  be  composed  of  single  indi 
viduals;  of  strips,  rows,  bunches,  groups;  or  it  may  show  an 
irregular  character. 

In  the  course  of  time  the  original  character  of  the  mixt  re 
might  be  changed  entirely  by  the  forester  or  by  nature. 

C.  Advantages  of  mixtures. 

Mixed  forests  take  advantage  of  differences  of  soil  qualities; 
the  moisture-demanding  species  gradually  claiming  the  dells  anl 
more  modest  kinds  obtaining  preponderance  on  the  dry  plateaus 
or  spurs. 

A  mixture  may  form  a  preventive  against  late  frost. 

A  mixture  is  better  protected  against  damages  by  fire,  insect', 
fungi,  storms,  snow,  etc. 

A  mixture  produces  a  better  quality  of  humus  (Pine  and  Oa'.c 
humus  is  better  than  pure  Oak  humus  or  pure  Pine  humus). 

A  mixture  produces  a  larger  quantity  of  timber  for  tlie  above 
reasons  in  addition  to  the  fact  that  a  mixture  allows  its  com- 
ponents to  more  fully  utilize  the  productive  factors  of  the  air 
as  well  as  those  of  the  soil  through 

a.  Difference   of  crown  formation,  crown   levels,   crown   density. 

b.  Difference   in  root   system    (tap   and   flat-rooters   mixed). 

c.  Difference  in  mineral  and  light  requirements. 

A  mixture  also  tends  to  produce  cleaner  timber — certainly  so 
for  the  benefit  of  liglit  demanders  when  placed  in  inixture  with 
shade  bearers. 

For  all  these  reasons  a  mixed  forest  may  be  said  to  produce  a 
larger  and  safer  revenue  than  a  pure  forest. 

Valuable  species  miglit  be  raised  beyond  the  limits  of  their 
habitat  in  mixed  forests. 

D.  Objections  to  mixed  forest. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

The  administrative  and  the  sylvicultural  management  of  mixed 
woods  is  more  difficult  and  hence  more  expensive  than  that  of 
pure  woods. 

In  America  logging  expenses  are  much  increased  where  only 
one  species  can  be  utilized  in  mixed  forests.  Logging  for  Spruce 
on  "  Black  Spruce  Slopes  "  in  the  Adirondacks  is  relatively  cheaper 
per  thousand  feet  board  measure  than  logging  for  Spruce  where 
Spruce  forms  only  one-third  of  the  growing  stock.  This  objection 
does  not  hold  good,  of  course,  where  all  species  are  marketable  at 
the  same  time. 

E.  Rules  governing  the  composition  of  a  mixture  and  rules  for 
treating  mixed  forests  (holding  good  for  artificial  and  semi-arti- 
Jicial   forests)  : 

I.  Species  selected  for  a  mixture  must  improve  one  another. 

II.  Each  species  should  occupy  that  section  of  ground  on  which 
it  thrives  best. 

III.  The  mixture  should  at  least  maintain  the  productiveness 
of  the  soil. 

IV.  A  light-demanding  species  mixed  with  a  shade  bearer  must 
either  be  given  an  advance  in  age  or  else  must  naturally  possess 
an  advantage  in  rapidity  of  height  growth;  otherwise  it  soon 
disappears.  This  relative  height  growth  is  not  a  fixed  quantity;  it 
usually  differs  according  to  the  soil  and  to  the  climate. 

V.  The  denser  the  forest  cover  is,  the  earlier  and  the  more 
intense  must  be  the  help  given  to  the  species  likely  to  be  suppressed 
(Sassafras  and  Locust  in  mixture  with  Chestnut). 

After  Henry  Mayr:  species  which  are  botanically  different  from 
the  most  natural  mixture  (Oak  and  Pine  at  Biltmore;  Birch  ami 
Spruce  in  Balsams;  White  Pine,  Linden  and  Elm  in  Michigan).  The 
exceptions  to  this  rule  are  many  (Norway  and  Jack  Pine  in  ]\liclii- 
gan;  Red  Firs  and  AVhite  Firs  in  the  Pacific  Coast  States). 

Paragraph   VIII.     Dr.   Henry   Mayr's    (Munich)    fundamental   prin- 
ciples of  Sylviculture. 

A.  Forest  is  possible  only  where  the  mean  temperature  of  t  ho 
four  months  of  most  active  growth  averages  50  degrees  Faht.  or  over 

B.  A  mean  summer  temperature  (May  to  August)  of  53  to  59 
degrees  Faht.  produces  the  Fir  and  Spruce  zone  of  Europe,  Asia  and 
America.  A  mean  summer  temperature  of  59  to  64  degrees  is 
productive  of  Beech,  also  of  Wliite  Oak,  Maple,  Hemlock  and  Cham- 
aecyparis.  A  knowledge  of  the  summer  mean  is  essential  when 
introducing   exotics.      A    knowledge    of    the     possibilities    of    forest 

36 


SYLVICULTUEE. 

growth    in    a    given    country    implies    a    knowledge    of     the     mean 
summer  temperature. 

Some  very  modest  trees  are  unreliable  as  indicators  or  ther- 
mometers   (i.    e.   Pinus    echinata,   Pinus    ponderosa). 

C.  A  species  may  be  grown  far  from  its  original  habitation, 
provided  that  the  local  climate  of  the  new  region  is  anaiOgous  to 
that  of  the  old.  If  the  exotic  comes  from  a  warmer  climate^  it 
should  be  placed  on  south  slopes  with  plenty  of  sun;  if  it  cornea 
from  a  colder  climate  it  should  be  placed  in  moist  soil  and  on 
cool  aspects.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  adaptation  of  trees  to  a 
different  climate,  or  as  acclimatization  of  trees.  Walnut,  Peacli, 
and  Black  Locust  have  been  grown  in  Germany  for  centuries,  be- 
cause the  climate  of  naturalization  was  and  is  essentially  identical 
with  that  of  the  natural  habitat  of  the  trees. 

D.  Tree  specimens  of  a  cold  climate  do  not  possess  in  them- 
selves any  special  power  of  resistance  to  frost.  It  is  useless  to 
import  seeds  from  colder  climates  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  greater 
hardiness  (Douglas  Fir  from  Oregon  and  from  Colorado  differ,  how- 
ever,   in    hardiness). 

E.  Species  of  trees  growing  in  hot  localities  or  else  in  open 
stands  place  comparatively  small  claims  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
All  species  bear  shade  better  when  brought  to  a  warmer  climate 
and  require  more  light  when  brought  to  a  colder  one   (White  Pine). 

F.  In  level  countries,  at  not  over  500  ft.  elevation,  the  habita- 
tion of  a  species  depends  on  latitude  considerably  modified  by  sea 
winds.  In  many  countries,  away  from  the  ocean,  that  modification 
is  so  strong  as  to  create  a  dependence  of  tlie  habitation  more  on 
longitudes  than  on  latitudes.  In  high  mountain  regions,  altitude 
may  produce  effects  similar  to  those  of  latitude:  it  is,  therefore,  a 
mistake  to  label  one  species  as  a  mountain  species  and  another 
as  a  plains'  species.  In  Eastern  North  America  Picea  rubens,  in 
Western  North  America  Douglas  Fir,  also  Abies  grandis  and  ama- 
bilis,  bear  witness  to  this  truism. 

G.  The  climatic  needs  of  a  species  are  better  characterized  by 
the  forest  zone  than  by  the  latitude  or  the  altitude  at  which  or 
up  to  which  it  grows.  Even  a  knowledge  of  altitude  and  latitude 
combined  furnishes  insufficient  information  relative  to  such  cli- 
matic needs. 

H.  If,  in  a  given  climatic  zone,  there  are  found  two  neighbor- 
ing species  of  the  same  genus,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  these 
two  species  were  not  mixed  originally,  but  that  each  had  its  dis- 
tinct habitation  and  that  the  mixture  is  due  to  the  action  of  man. 

.37 


SVLVICILTUEE. 

I.  In  primitive  forests  tlie  species  wliicli  harmonize  are  those 
whicli   differ  botanically. 

J.  \^nien  two  species  are  so  alike  as  to  be  almost  varieties  but 
hiive,  nevertheless,  different  climatic  needs,  then  they  are,  in  reality, 
Inie  and  distinct  species   (Douglas  Fir  in  Colorado  and  Oregon). 

K.  Frcst  injury  is  always  due  to  the  death  of  the  plasmodium 
killed  l?y  the  direct  action  of  the  frost.  The  plasmodium  is  most 
sensitive  during  the  time  of  cell  formation  and  of  active  groAvth. 
The  Plasmodium  in  the  inert  stage,  as  in  seeds,  is  actually  insensitive. 

L.  All  species  become  more  hardy  as  they  grow  older.  This  is 
simply  due  to  the  trees  rising  above  the  cold  layers  of  temperature 
near  the  ground  and  to  the  greater  thickness  and  mass  of  the  trunk, 
resisting  rapid  changes  of  temjierature. 

M.  The  degree  of  moisture  in  the  air  required  for  forest  growth 
is  50%  relative  humidity  during  the  growing  season.  The  broad- 
leaved  trees  and  the  two  and  three  needled  Pines  are  the  species 
best  adapted  to  regions  of  extreme  dryness  or  of  sudden  changes 
in   atmospheric  moisture. 

X.  The  association  of  trees  into  a  forest  has  the  effect  of  increas- 
ing the  relative  humidity  by  not  to  exceed  10%.  Hence  the  neces-, 
sity  of  maintaining  forest  in  regions  where  the  tension  of  watery 
vapor  is  close  to  50%.  The  partial  destruction  of  a  forest  may 
entail  the  death  of  the  remainder  rendering  reforestation  impossible 
unless  it  is  started  from  the  nearest  adjoining  forest.  Inside  a 
forest  the  greater  atmospheric  humidity  acts  as  beneficially  as  a 
moist  ocean  wind,  lacking,  however,  the  latter's  violence. 

0.  It  is  in  moist,  cool  localities  (mountains  and  northern  cli- 
mate) that  climatic  variations  are  the  least  extreme  during  the 
growing  season.  It  is  here  that  the  annual  rings  are  equal,  the 
grain  fine  and  regular,  and  the  timber  of  the  greatest  commercial 
utility. 

P.  The  moister  the  climate,  the  easier  becomes  forest  culture, 
and  the  forester  is  apt  to  make  tlie  least  mistakes  in  thinnings, 
regeneration,  fellings,  etc.  Air  moisture  seems  to  exercise  a  favor- 
able influence  on  the  straightness  of  the  stems. 

Q.  It  is  known  that  a  failure  of  rain  for  several  days  may  be 
fatal  to  young  plants.  The  faculty  of  persistence  increases '  with 
age,  and  the  grown  trees  can  endure  long  periods  of  drought.  If, 
however,  the  lack  of  rain  is  such  as  to  bring  the  sum  total  of 
precipitations  during  the  four  months  of  the  growing  season  below 
the  two-inch  mark,  then  the  forest  disappears,  even  if  the  humidity 


SYLVICULTURE. 

of  the  air  remains  above  50%.  Exception — immediate  neighborhood 
of  lakes  and  rivers  with  their  sub-soil  percolation. 

R.  A  fairly  moist  soil  is  the  best  for  all  species  in  their 
optimum  climate.  In  hotter  places  the  locality  must  be  more 
damp,  while  in  colder  ones  it  may  be  dry  without  hindering 
growth  (White  Pine  in  the  Pink  Beds  in  swamps,  in  Canada  on 
dry 'soil;  Sitka  Spruce  in  ^A'ashington  in  swamps;  in  Alaska  on 
dry  land). 

S.  Snow  protects  those  parts  of  a  plant  which  it  covers;  it 
increases  the  danger,  however,  for  the  parts  just  above  the  snow 
level.  Snowy  winters  are,  therefore,  useful  to  low  plants,  but 
harmful  to  trees   (except  broad-leaved  trees). 

T.  As  regards  the  winds,  the  most  dangerous  are  those  which 
follow  the  direction  of  the  barometric  minima-,  which  in  Eastern 
America  travel  from  east  to  west;  in  Europe  from  west  to  east; 
in  East  Asia  from  south  to  north.  Next  dangerous  are  the  winds 
traveling  in  the  opposite  direction,  whilst  those  from  other  points 
of  the  compass  are  more  harmless.  Every  mountain,  however,  cre- 
ates a  deflection  of  the  current  and  possibly  a  return  in  the  oppo- 
site direction. 

U.  In  their  youth  trees  are  almost  indifferent  to  the  qualitj' 
of  the  soil;  with  increasing  age  their  exigencies  increase.  Thus 
plantations  on  poor  soil  may  thrive  well  for  a  number  of  years, 
only  to  be  suddenly  arrested  at  the  beginning  of  the  pole  stage. 

V.  In  their  most  suitable  situation  (natural  optimum)  a  species 
succeeds  on  soil  of  any  mineral  description.  In  a  less  favorable 
climate  the  soil  requii'ements  of  the  species  increase. 

W.  The  light  most  favorable  to  activity  of  the  chlorophyll  is 
not  the  light  of  the  blazing  sun,  nor  is  it  the  diffused  light  coming 
through  rain  or  fog,  but  that  light  which  is  reflected  by  brilliant 
white  clouds.  Leaf  cover  overhead  is  favorable  when  it  filters 
the  rays  of  a  burning  sun  and  unfavorable  when  it  excessively 
reduces  the  intensity  of  insolation.  Under  a  continental  climate, 
cloudless  days  are  more  numerous  than  near  the  coast.  The  influ- 
ence of  thinnings  and  removal  cuttings  on  the  remaining  growth 
consequentlj'  depends  on  the  continental  position  of  a  forest — not 
solely  on  species  and  soil. 

X.  The  regeneration  of  forests  approaching  exploitable  age  is 
easiest  in  their  optimum  climate.  If  the  climate  is  too  warm,  seed 
will  be  more  abundant,  and  the  young  plants  will  endure  cover 
better.      The    moisture   of    the    air,    however,   is    wanting,    and   the' 

39 


SYLVICULTUEE. 

denser  cover  overhead  may  intercept  too  much  of  the  needed  rain- 
fall. 

If  the  climate  is  too  cold,  the  moisture  of  the  air  indeed 
increases;  but  the  production  of  seeds  and  the  persistence  under 
cover  decrease. 

Y.  In  mixed  forests  artificial  regeneration  is  more  difficult  than 
natural  regeneration.  A  clean  felling  results  in  a  capricious  com- 
plication of  natural  laws  and  phenomena  whose  contrary  actions 
are  not  easily  understood.  Xatural  regeneration,  a  mixture  ot 
species  suitable  to  the  locality,  a  crop  resembling  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible the  primitive  state,  such  are  the  conditions  which  the  forester 
should  seek  to  realize  for  the  avoidance  of  dangers  as  well  as  f'<r 
the  greatest  possible  yield  of  the  most  valuable  produce.  No 
method  of  treatment  harmonizes  better  with  nature's  laws  than 
the  so-called  selection  system,  when  each  tree  is  placed  in  a  con- 
dition most  favorable  to  its  development,  and  when  no  single  tres 
is  removed  for  a  purpose  other  than  that  of  regeneration  or  im- 
provement of  the  crop. 


40 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE    HIGH    FOREST. 


Paragraph  IX.    Genesis  of  the  high  forest  and  its  methods. 

Wood  crops  can  be  started  either  naturally  (from  stump  shoots, 
root  suckers  and  self-sown  seed)  or  artificially  (by  planting  seeds, 
seedlings  or  cuttings).  Forests  starting  from  stump  shoots,  root- 
suckers  and  cuttings  are  called  "  coppice  forests."  Forests  start- 
ing from  seeds  or  seedlings  are  termed  "  high  forests." 

A.  Planting  in  Europe. 

Up  to  18.30  seed  planting  only  was  practiced  to  start  high 
forests  artificially.  Since  then  seedling  planting  has  gradually  con- 
quered the  European  field,  especially  in  the  case  of  Yellow  and  ^Vlute 
Pine,  Spruce,  Ash,  Maple  and  Larch.  Beech  and  Fir  are  invariably 
regenerated  abroad  from  self-sown  seed;  also  Oak  in  France,  while  in 
Germany  acorns  are  usually  planted. 

B.  Advisability  of  planting  in  America. 

Excepting  the  case  of  the  prairies  and,  possibly  the  case  of  fields 
abandoned  by  farmers  in  the  Eastern  States,  the  idea  of  artificial 
propagation  of  forest  crops  (by  planting)  seems  preposterous  in 
America.  As  long  as  an  acre  of  virgin  forest  can  be  bought  for  a 
lesser  sum  of  money  than  is  required,  in  the  same  locality,  for  the 
successful  re-forestation  of  an  acre  of  ground,  the  chances  for  a  re- 
mimerative  outcome  of  planting  seem  very  slim.  However,  the  fol- 
lowing points  should  not  be  lost  sight  of: 

I.  The  stumpage  prices  apt  to  prevail  in  America  in  the  year 
]  960  are  likely  to  equal  those  now  prevailing  abroad.  Hence  the  same 
practice  which  is  now  remunerative  abroad  must  prove  paying  in  this 
country;  possibly  more  paying  for  the  reason  that  the  value  of  the 
soil  on  ^vhich  the  growing  crop  must  yield  an  annual  dividend  is 
abroad  about  ten  times  as  high  as  it  is  in  the  United  States. 

IT.  An  expense  for  taxes  and  administration  is  incvirred  annually 
by  the  forest  owner,  whether  the  forest  ground  is  kept  fully  or  only 
partly  stocked;  hence  it  seems  a  remimerative  venture  to — at  least — 
reinforce  natural  regeneration  by  artificial  planting. 

III.  Tlie  growth  of  weeds  naturally  plentiful  in  primeval  con- 
ditions cannot  be  overcome  unless  radical  artificial  remedies  are 
adopted. 

41 


.  SYLVICULTURE. 

C.  On  the  other  hand,  the  following  objections  to  planting  must 
be  considered: 

I.As  long  as  the  American  forest  is  much  endangered  by  fire,  it 
is  unwise  to  invest  any  money  in  young  growth  for  which  the  danger 
of  destruction  by  fire  is  excessive. 

II.  Trees  of  a  condition  now  considered  "  weeds  "  may  gradually 
attain  a  stumpage  value   (as  Chestnut  at  Biltmore). 

III.  Even  European  forestry  is  now  reverting  to  a  natural  propa- 
gation of  forests  owing  to  the  dangers  usually  inherent  to  artificial 
planting. 

D.  Definitions. 

The  word  reforestation  is  used  if  the  area  to  be  planted  has  been 
previously  occupied  by  tree  growth. 

The  word  afforestation  is  used  if  there  was  no  tree  growth  on  the 
plot  for  a  number  of  years  beforehand. 

Paragraph  X.    The  Seed. 

The  equality  of  seeds  is  shown  by  their  size,  weight,  color,  scent. 
A  tree  standing  in  an  open  position,  not  too  young  and  not  too  old, 
produces  the  best  seeds. 

A.  Seed  years: 

The  atmospheric  conditions  of  the  year  or  years  during  which  the 
peed  is  formed  further  influence  the  quality  of  the  seed.  Drought 
in  summer  and  early  frosts  in  fall  cause  the  seeds  to  drop  immatui'e. 
Black  Oaks  and  Pines  require  t^^o  years  for  the  formation  of  seeds. 
Juniper  three  j^ears.  It  seems  as  if  all  trees  require  a  number  of 
years  for  the  preparation  of  seeds,  inasmuch  as  the  medullary  rays 
before  a  seed  year  are  found  full  of  starch,  and  after  a  seed  year  de- 
void of  starch.  This  phenomenon  may  explain  the  periodical  occur- 
rence of  seed  years  in  Bamboo  and  Canebrakes,  in  Chestnut,  Oak, 
Beech,  Pine,  etc. 

The  length  of  the  period  elapsing  between  seed  years  depends  on 
the  local  climate  and  the  position  of  the  ti-ees,  being  short  for  trees 
standing  in  orchard-like  positions  on  warm  and  sheltered  ground 
where   abundant  lieat  allows   of  the  rapid  accumulation   of   starch. 

B.  Rest: 

After  dropping  from  the  tree,  all  seeds  undergo  a  period  of  rest 
in  our  climate.  This  rest  is  very  short  in  the  case  of  Cottomvood, 
Willow,  Elm  and  Soft  Maple.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  in  Eastern 
North  America,  it  lasts  from  November  to  April.  In  rare  'cases 
(German  Ash,  German  Linden,  Red  Cedar,  Hornbeam)  the  period  of 
inactivity  covers  about  seventeen  months.     Seeds  which  get  too  dry 

42 


SYLVICULTURE. 

while  stored,  often  show  a  piolonged  period  of  rest.  For  White  Oak 
feeed  the  period  of  rest  is  only  two  months ;  for  Red  Oak  five  months. 
The  assumption  that  frost  is  required  during  the  resting  period  for 
the  benefit  of  the  seed  is  erroneous.  The  germinating  percentage  is 
greatest  immediately  at  the  conclusion  of  the  period  of  rest. 

C.  Tests: 

Genninating  tests  are  made  with  from  50  to  200  grains. 

I.  Water  test  applicable  to  large  seeds.  ThroAvn  in  water  the 
good  seeds  will  sink,  and  the  bad  seeds  will  float. 

II.  Cutting  tests,  made  with  a  knife,  used  for  testing  acorns, 
chestnuts,  nuts  of  Xutpines,  also  seeds  of  Ash,  Yellow  Poplar, 
Beech,  etc. 

III.  Hot-pan  tests  for  conifers,  which  causes  good  seeds  to  jump 
and  burst,  poor  seeds  to  burn  and  char. 

IV.  Pot  tests  made  in  the  following  manner:  Fill  the  lower  half 
of  a  flower  pot  with  sawdust,  the  upper  half  with  sand  in  which  the 
seeds  are  embedded.  Place  the  pot  in  a  basin  partially  filled  with 
water,  in  a  warm  room. 

V.  Flannel  test:  Place  the  seeds  between  two  strips  of  flannel 
kept  moist  by  running  their  ends  into  a  bowl  of  water  standing  at  a 
lower  level. 

VI.  Test  in  the  commercial-test  appai-atvis,  which  consists  of  a 
bottom  plate  (glass  or  china),  a  bell-shaped  top  (same  material)  and 
a  clay  disk  containing  100  small  grooves,  which  fits  into  the  bottom 
plate.  All  three  parts  are  open  in  the  center.  The  clay  disk  is 
burned  in  such  a  way  as  to  retain  good  hygroscopic  qualities,  and  is 
boiled  for  a  number  of  hours  (in  water)  before  using,  to  kill  adherent 
spores  of  fungi.  Moist  sand  is  kept  between  the  disk  and  the  bottom 
plate.     The  grains  are  inserted  into  the  grooves. 

Paragraph  XL    Preparations  for  planting  seed  on  open  ground. 

The  germinating  bed  must  offer  the  seed  a  proper,  constant  and 
equal  supply  of  heat,  oxygen  and  moisture.  The  actual  amount  of 
heat,  oxygen  and  moisture  required  has  not  been  ascertained  scien- 
tifically. Observation- in  the  woods  is  the  best  teacher  of  the  condi- 
tions securing  the  largest  possible  germinating  percentage  for  r.ny 
given  species. 

The  preparation  for  seed-planting  may  extend  over  the  entire 
area  to  be  planted;  or  only  over  certain  strips  which  may  be  inter- 
rupted or  continuous;  or  it  may  merely  involve  the  grubbing  of  plots 
or  spots.  Where  the  ravages  of  game  or  mice  are  feared,  irregular 
working  is  advisable. 

43 


SYLVICULTURE. 

A.  Removing  the  soil  covers,  such  as  briars,  Kalmia,  Chinquapin, 
mosses,  dead  leaves,  humus.  A  plow  and  grubber  (cultivator)  or  a 
harrow  can  usually  not  be  used  for  the  purpose;  the  hoe  (a  strong 
make)  is  largely  used  abroad;  weeds  are  removed  with  brush  hooks 
or  scythes  or  machetes  or  are,  if  possible,  killed  by  deadening.  In 
certain  cases  an  iron  rake  might  do.  Often  it  is  necessary  to  remove 
the  cover  by  fire:  fire,  however,  produces  a  heavy  growth  of  weeds 
on  fertile  soil  (as  in  Pisgah  forest). 

B.  Loosening  the  soil.  Just  after  logging,  the  soil  has  enough 
porosity  to  allow  of  the  development  of  a  second  growtlf.  On  aban- 
doned fields  or  in  prairies  thorough  working  with  the  plow%  often 
continued  for  a  number  of  years,  may  or  must  precede  the  act  of 
planting. 

Paragraph  XII.    Securing  and  preparing  the  seeds. 

A.  European  tree  seeds  are  usually  bought  from  reliable  dealers, 
who  rival  in  furnishing  the  best  seed  at  the  lowest  price,  guarantee- 
ing a  certain  percentage  to  germinate.  In  America,  the  forester  must 
secure  seeds  himself,  collecting  them  by  contract,  or  preferably,  by 
day  work.  Some  European  sylviculturists  insist  that  seeds  should 
be  taken  only  from  the  best  and  strongest  trees.  Mayr  considers 
special  care  superfluous. 

B.  Under  "  coning  "  is  understood  the  method  of  obtaining  seeds 
of  coniferous  species  from  their  cones.  Coning  of  Spruce,  Pine,  Fir 
and  Larch  on  a  commercial  scale  is  practiced  in  Europe  by  Henry 
Keller,  Appel  &  Co.  and  A.  I^ecoq,  all  of  Darmstadt,  Germany. 

Certain  Pine  species  (Nutpines)  have  wingless  seeds.  The  wings 
of  other  Pine  seeds  hold  the  grain  in  a  claw. 

The  seed  of  Spruce  lies  in  the  wing  as  in  a  spoon;  the  seed  of 
Larch  and  Fir  is  attached  to  the  wing  and  is  not  easily  separated. 

Among  the  broad-leaf  cone  bearers — Alders,  Birches  and  Magno- 
lias—the coning  of  Magnolias  only  offers  some  difficulties. 

I.  The  methods  of  coning  are  as  follows: 

a.  Coning  by  insolation,  the  oldest  and  safest  method.  Trays, 
the  bottoms  of  which  cmtain  open  lath  work  or  wire  netting,  are 
placed  in  the  sun  and  removed  to  a  shed  if  rain  threatens  to  fall. 
The  cones  are  spread  on  the  trays  in  layers  not  over  two  cones  deep 
and  are  stirred  with  a  rake.  In  place  of  trays,  drums  might  be  used 
to  good  advantage.  In  a  cold  climate  the  sun  process  allows  of 
obtaining  the  seeds  only  at  a  time  too  late  for  seed  planting.  The 
germinating  percentage  of  seeds  obtained  by  the  sun  process  is, 
otherwise,  superior  to  that  of  seeds  coned  by  other  methods. 

b.  Coning  by  stove  heat. 

44 


SYLVICULTURE. 

It  is  essential  that  the  heat  in  the  coning  room  should  not  reach 
110  degrees.  Thorough  ventilation  is  required  to  prevent  sweating 
and  moulding  of  cones.  The  cones  are  spread  in  the  coning-room  in 
thin  layers  on  shelves  or  screens,  through  the  interstices  of  which  the 
seeds  drop.     The  cones  are  stirred  three  or  four  times  a  day. 

It  is  unwise  to  have  the  stove  in  the  coning-room.  An  American 
hot-air  furnace  in  the  basement  is  well  adapted  to  furnish  the  heat. 

Many  of  the  large  European  forestry  administrations  have  sucli 
or  similar  establishments  for  coning. 

c.  Commercial  method. 

In  the  commercial  establishments,  heat  is  supplied  by  steam 
pipes,  controlled  by  automatic  devices.  The  trays  or  drums  are  kept 
in  a  constant  rocking  motion  by  machinery.  The  seeds,  after  falling 
through  the  crevices  of  the  trays,  are  at  once  conducted  to  a  cool 
room. 

II.  Separating  seeds  from  their  wings. 

In  the  case  of  Pine  and  Spruce  seeds,  flailing  is  sufficient.  It 
is  not  advisable  to  wet  the  seeds  before  flailing.  For  Larch,  rubber 
millstones  are  used,  the  distance  between  the  stones  being  equal 
to  the   smallest   diameter  of  the  seed. 

III.  Cleaning  the  seed  from  dust,  needles  and  wings.  The  seeds 
are  freed  from  admixtures  by  fanning,  shoveling,  centrifuge  or  any 
grain-cleaning  machine.  The  large  commercial  establishments  drop 
the  seeds  on  endless  rolls  of  cloth,  which  are  moving  on  an  incline. 
The  heavy  seeds  slide  down,  whilst  dust  and  wings  are  carried  uphill. 

IV.  Statistical   notes. 

a.  Spruce  in  the  Adirondacks    (after  Clifford  R.  Pettis). 

1.  Cost  of  picking  cones  50c  per  bushel    (green). 

2.  One  bushel  of  green  cones  yields  two  bushels  of  dry  cones, 
containing  ly^  lbs.  equal  to  IVs  qts.  of  Spruce  seeds. 

3.  One  bushel  of  cones  w^eighs  60  lbs.,  one  bushel  of  seeds  40  lbs. 

4.  One  pound   of   seed  contains   1.50,000  grains. 

5.  It  costs   9.5c  to  collect,  cone   and  clean   one  pound   of  seeds. 

b.  White  Pine  at  Biltmore. 

1.  100  bushels  of  cones  will  weigh  2,200  lbs.  (a  "  long  ton  "). 

2.  One  bushel  contains  600  to  700  cones,  and  yields,  on  an 
average,  l^   lb.  of  absolutely  clean,  wingless  seeds. 

3.  One  pound  of  sucli  seed  contains  25,000  to  30,000  grains. 

c.  Yellow  Pine  (ponderosa)  in  Xew  Mexico  (after  Wm.  H.  Mast), 

1.  One  bushel  of  cones  yields  1.55  lbs.  of  clean  seed. 

2.  The  expense  of  collecting,  coning  and  cleaning  averages  23c 
^er   pound. 

45 


^  SYLVICULTURE. 

(1.  Colorado  Blue  Spruce  in  New  Mexico  (after  Wm.  H.  Mast). 

1.  One  bushel  of  cones  yields  L2  lbs.  of  clean  seeds. 

2.  The  expense  of  coning,  collecting  and  cleaning  averages  23c 
per  pound. 

e.  Shortleaf  Pine  at  Biltniore   (Pinus  eehinata). 
One  bushel  of  cones  yields  one  pound  of  clean,  wingless  seeds 
at  an  expense  of  $1.00  per  pound. 

C.  Seeds  stored  beyond  the  duration  of  their  natural  period  of 
rest  show  a  reduced  percentage  of  germination.  The  percentage 
might  be  increased  by  the  use  of  slightly  acid  solutions,  lime  water 
or  hot  water.  Coniferous  seeds  are  often  placed  in  cold  water  for 
from  three  to  seven  days  previous  to  planting;  seeds  thus  treated, 
however,  must  be  supplied  with  moisture  artificially  after  planting 
if  drought  sets  in. 

D.  The  "  malting  "  of  seeds  (placing  the  seeds  in  heaps,  moisten- 
ing them  and  stirring  them  in  a  warm  room)  is  a  rather  dangerous 
procedure.  After  Weise,  Douglas  Fir  and  White  Pine  seeds  should 
be  mixed  with  moist  and  fertile  soil  and  stable  manure,  to  be 
then  exposed  to  a  hot-house  temperature  until  the  germs  begin  to 
show.  S.  B.  Green  recommends  to  pour  boiling  water  on  the  seeds 
of  Locust,  Honey-Locust  and  CofFee-tree,  and  to  allow  the  seeds 
to  remain  in  the  water  until  it  is  cold,  planting  immediately  there- 
after. 

Paragraph  XIII.    Actual  planting  of  seeds  on  open  ground. 

Seeds  should  not  be  planted  on  rainy  days,  especially  not  on 
clay  soil.  For  broadcast  planting,  the  area  to  be  planted  and  the 
seed  are  divided  into  equal  lots.  The  quantity  of  seed  allotted  to 
the  unit  of  space  is  subdivided  into  halves.  Each  half  is  sown 
separately  by  going  over  the  ground  Crosswise. 

Broadcast  planting  is  rare  nowadays. 

Rough  nursery  beds  (either  running  full  length  of  the  area  or 
interrupted  beds),  furrows  or  banks  are  frequently  provided.  Nar- 
row .trenches  may  be  pressed  into  the  beds  or  banks  with  the  help 
of  a  board,  a  hoe  handle  or  a  wheel. 

The  seed  is  usually  sown  by  hand,  possibly  with  the  help  of 
a  beer  bottle,  a  so-called  seed  horn  and,  rarely,  with  a  seed- 
planting  machine.  The  machine  should  only  be  used  on  ground 
as  well  prepared  as  a  wheat  field  (prairies  or  abandoned  fields). 
On  land  newly  cleared,  roots  and  stumps  prevent'  the  use  of  a 
machine. 

4G 


SYLVICULTURE. 

"  Covering "  purports  to  place  or  rather  press  the  seeds  into 
contact  with  the  mineral  soil  on  all  sides;  to  prevent  sudden 
changes  of  air  temperature  from  striking  the  seed;  to  prevent  the 
seeds  from  drying  out  under  excessive  exposure  to  the  air.  The 
cover  must  be  such  as  to  allow  a  young  germ  to  push  its  cotyle- 
dons easily  through  the  cover.  The  seeds  keeping  their  cotyledons 
below  ground   (Oaks,  Sassafras,  Chestnut)   allow  of  a  heavy  cover. 

In  the  case  of  coniferous  seeds,  a  proper  cover  is  secured  with 
the  rake  or  with  a  brush  drag;  or  by  marching  the  planters,  a 
band  of  sheep  or  a  herd  of  cattle  over  the  plantation.  Heavy  seeas 
are  often  strewn  on  the  ground  without  any  preparation  and  then 
covered  with  a  shovelful  of  dirt.  In  America  seed-planting  in  the 
open  is  an  unadvisable  measure  as  long  as  the  prices  of  seeds 
maintain  their  present  figure. 

"  Planting  of  cones  "  was  the  leading  method  used  a  hundred 
years  ago  by  European  foresters.  The  cones  were  strewn  on  the 
ground   and   stirred   periodically   by   sheep,   with   good   results. 

Seeds  more  than  one-quarter  inch  thick,  especially  nuts,  are 
usually  dibbled  with  dibbling  hammer,  wedge,  knife,  hoe,  spade,  etc 
The  hole  made  should  place  the  seed  at  the  best  depth.  The  hole  is 
closed  by  side  pressiu-e,  by  the  foot  or  the  hammer,  or  by  allowing 
a  lifted  sod  to  drop  back  in  place.  The  common  planting  spade 
often  puts  the  seeds  too  deep. 

A.  The  quantity  of   seeds  used  per   acre  depends   on: 
Price    of    seed. 

Density  of  stand  desired. 

Tenderness,  sensitiveness  and  rate  of  growth  of  species. 

Local  damage  from  late  frost,  drought,  weeds,  insects,  mice, 
squirrels,  rabbits,  game,  birds,  etc. 

Quality  of  both  soil  and  seeds. 

Fineness  of  prepared  soil. 

Method  of  planting  by  hand  or  machine,  regular  or  irregular, 
broadcast  or  in  patchwork.  Planting  seeds  in  bands  or  strips 
only  requires  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  of  broadcast  amount; 
planting   in  patches   one-half,   in   holes   one-fourth   of   the   same. 

B.  Figures  adopted  at  Biltmore  for  broadcast  planting  are,  per 
acre : 

White   Oak   and   Chestnut   Oak,   12  bu. 
Eed  Oak  and  Black  Oak,  8  bu. 
Ash,  40  lbs. 
Beech,   130  lbs. 
Maple,  40  lbs. 

^7 


S  V  L  \"  1 C  L  ]/i' L  K  K. 

Elm,  24  lbs. 
Birch,  32  lbs. 
Firs,  45  lbs. 
Spruce,  10  lbs. 
Larch,  10  lbs. 
Yellow  Pine,  8  lbs. 
White  Pine,  12  lbs. 

C.  Small  seeds:  Xumber  of  seeds  in  one  pound  (approximately, 
all   coniferous   seeds   without   wings) : 

Ash    6,200 

Elm    55,000 

Silver  Fir   9,000 

Tamarack 70,000 

White   Pine    30,000 

Maple    5,000 

Birch     80,000 

Spruce    56,000 

Yellow    Pine    70,000 

D.  Large  seeds:  Number  of  seeds  in  one  bushel  are:  White 
Oak,  8.000:   Red  Oak,  3,000;   Walnuts,  800.    ^ 

Paragraph  XIV.     Season  for  seed  planting  on  open  ground. 

For  Cottonwoods,  Elms  (excepting  Red  or  Slippery  Elm),  Soft 
Maple,  Black  Birch  and  Mulberry,  the  best  time  of  planting  is 
nature's  time, — immediatelj'  after  the  fall  of  the  seeds — in  early 
summer.  In  the  case  of  the  species  enumerated,  the  period  of  rest 
is  very  short  and  the  seedlings  starting  rapidly  have  time  to  lig- 
nifj-  before  winter.  In  all  other  cases  the  forester  can  plant  either 
in  fall  or  in  spring.  Planting  in  winter  is  usually  prevented  by 
the  condition  of  the  soil. 

A.  Planting  in  fall  invites: 

I.  Inroads  of  animals  in  winter. 

II.  Washing  of   seed  when  snow  melts. 

III.  Damage  from  late  frost,  since  planted  seeds  sproiit  early 
in  spring. 

B.  Spring  planting  necessitates: 

I.  Expense  for  seed  storage  over  winter. 

II.  Checks  during  storage,  injurious  to  germinating  percentage. 

III.  Higher  expense  for  planting,  planting  taking  place  at  a 
time  when  labor  is  scarce. 

Spring  planting  forms  the  rule,  except  with  Fir,  Beech,  Cliest- 
nut.  White  Oak. 

48 


SYLVICULTURE 

In  semi-trojjical  regions  or  places  of  periodical  drought,  the  best 
planting  time  is  the  fortnight  preceding  the  rainy  period.  On  dry- 
soil  seeds  are  planted  as  early  in  spring  as  possible  so  as  to  profit 
from  the  moisture  left  by  melting  snow. 

Seeds  which  naturally  germinate  18  months  after  maturity 
(Red  Cedar,  Hornbeam,  some  Ashes,  some  Basswoods)  require  strati- 
fication: Place  seeds,  in  dry  soil,  in  a  ditch  ten  inches  deep  and  ten 
inches  wide,  to  a  depth  of  five  inches.  Cover  seeds  with  straw  and 
dry  weeds,  and  finally  with  dirt.  After  the  lapse  of  a  year  the 
seeds  are  ready  for  planting. 

Paragraph  XV.     Auxiliaries  to  seed  planting. 

A.  Means  to  protect  species  needing  shade  in  earliest  youth. 

I.  Plant  seeds  with  oats,  barley  or  summer  rye,  planting  the 
grain  seed  in  quantities  not  to  exceed  75%  of  the  normal.  Cut 
grain  crops  high.  This  method  was  used  regularly  100  years  ago, 
for  European  Pine  and  White  Oak,  possibly  with  a  view  to  early 
returns,  possibly  to  distract  ravages  of  field  mice  and  birds. 

II.  Certain  species,  tender  and  shade  demanding  in  early  youth 
like  Beech  and  Fir,  cannot  well  be  raised  in  the  open,  unless  an 
usher  growth  12  to  15  years  older  (of  Yellow  Pine,  Sassafras,  Black 
Locust,  Birch)  is  previously  started  on  the  ground.  The  usher 
growth  is  gradually  removed  when  the  seedlings  underneath  want 
'■  skylight."  In  semi-arid  parts  such  usher  growth  is  perhaps 
doubly  advisable;  further  in  prairies,  where  Poplars  and  Willows, 
Box  Elders  and   Soft  Maple   miglit   serve   as   ushers    (also  Locust). 

B.  Means  to  protect  the  seed  plantation  from  animals  and 
weeds. 

I.  Against  seed-eating  animals.  Planting  in  late  spring  offers 
some  protection.  Planting  in  sprouting  condition  protects  heavy 
seeds  from  rodents;  slight  coating  of  red  lead  protects  conifers 
from  birds.  •  A  watchman  might  be  kept  on  large  plantations,  to 
scare  the  birds  away.  By  coating  large  seeds  with  tar,  crows 
might  be  kept  away. 

II.  Light  cover  of  weeds  is  no  disadvantage.  Where  weeds  are 
heavy,  seedlings  should  be  planted,  rather  than  seeds.  Mowing  (with 
scythe)  weeds  and  fefns,  crushing  briars— preferably  before  weeds 
are  seeding— -is  recommended.  Where  seeds  are  planted  in  rows 
or  furrows  on  abandoned  fields,  cultivation  checks  weeds. 

III.  Pasture  is  not  allowed  in  seed  plantations  before  the  thicket 
stage  is  past. 

C.  Reinforcing.     Bare  spots  where  seed  planting  has  failed   are 


SYLVICULTURE. 

usually  reinforced  by  planted  seedlings.  The  latter  are  taken  fron 
adjoining  dense  spots.  In  broad-leaved  species,  the  blanks  where 
planting  has  failed,  had  better  be  marked  during  the  preceding 
summer. 

Paragraph  XVI.     Planting  seeds  of  the  broad-leaved  species. 

A.    Acorns. 

The  germinating  acorn  leaves  the  cotyledons  beloAV  ground. 
If  the  first  shoot  is  killed  another  forms  at  once.  A 
shelter  (or  usher)  growth  to  husband  a  plantation  during  its  first 
years  is  hardly  needed.  Still  plantations  of  Yellow  Pine  made  to 
protect  the  Oaks  planted  between  the  Pines  are  often  found  abroad. 
Its  long  tap  root  prevents  the  Oak  from  being  lifted  by  frost. 

The  soil  cover  given  varies  between  one  and  three  inches, 
according  to  the  looseness  and  porosity  of  the  soil.  In  case  of 
spring  sowing,  germination  requires  from  five  to  six  weeks. 

At  Biltmore,  White  Oak  and  Chestnut  Oak  acorns  planted  in  fall 
are  often  found  sproirEing  before  Christmas.  The  germ  in  such 
cases,  however,  does  not  appear  above  the  ground.  Red  Oak  and 
Black  Oak  seem  to  sprout  only  in  spring.  Acorns  may  be  sown 
broadcast,  especially  on  abandoned  fields.  Formerly  acorns  were 
planted  often  with  oats  and  barley  or  summer  rye.  The  cover 
is  given  with  a  harrow  in  case  of  broadcast  planting. 

More  often  acorns  are  planted  in  furrows  from  two  to  seven 
feet  apart.  It  is  better  to  plant  acorns  closely  within  furrows 
far  apart,  than  sparingly  in  furrows  near  -together.  The  cover  is 
given  either  by  a  second  furrow  or  by  hoe  or  rake. 

Cultivation  between  rows  (during  summer)  is  not  practiced 
abroad.  On  abandoned  fields  at  Biltmore  it  seems  required  for  the 
purpose  of  cheeking  mice,  squirrels  and  rabbits. 

Where  acorns  are  planted  for  mixture  merely  with  Beech,  Pin< 
and  Chestnut,  the  planting  in  irregular  patches  or  el:=e  "  cversoiliiig  " 
are  often  used.  In  the  latter  case  a  liandful  of  acorns  is  roughly 
covered  by   a   shovelful   of   dirt. 

The  usual  method  adopted  abroad  for  raising  Oak  is  dibbling. 

The  answer  to  the  question  whether  spring  or  fall  planting  is 
better,  depends  on  the  number  of  enemies  preying  on  the  acorns  in 
winter.  Since  the  Black  Oaks  are  not  much  molested,  it  might  be 
as  well  to  plant  them  in  fall.  Black  Oaks  suff"er  little  in  germinat- 
ing percentage  during  winter  storage.  White  Oak  ax?orns,  however, 
are   much   eaten  by  mice,  squirrels,   turkeys,  hogs,  etc.,  and  would 

.50 


SYLVICULTURE. 

be  planted  in  spring  if  winter  storage  did  not  invite  a  large  loss 
of  germinating  percentage.  For  wintering  White  Oak  acorns,  it 
is  best  to  place  them  (imitating  nature)  in  slight  layers  under  a 
cover  of  humus  on  fairly  dry  soil.  After  Charles  Heyer:  Large 
baskets  are  roughly  made  on  dry  soil,  the  bottom  and  walls  lined 
with  moss;  within  are  placed  alternate  layers  of  moss  or  sand 
and  acorns.     The  basket  is  roofed  with  straw. 

After  Von  Alemann:  Ditches  8  feet  wide  by  10  inches  deep  are 
made  on  dry  soil.  The  acorns  must  not  be  too  wet  when  put  into 
the  ditch.  The  cover  consists  of  a  layer  of  vegetable  matter.  A 
rough  hut  is  made  all  over  the  ditch,  out  of  slabs,  bark,  twigs, 
etc.  The  acorns  are  stirred  up  twice  a  week  during  winter. 
Ileyer's  method  also  requires  a  steep-walled  ditch  around  the  place 
of  storage  to  keep  mice  out.  Possibly  it  might  be  wise  to  keep 
sacked  acorns  submerged  in  running  water. 

B.  Chestnuts. 

Chestnuts  require  more  fertile  alnd  hence  better-prepared  soil 
than  acorns.  The  nut  has  still  more  enemies  than  the  White  Oak 
acorn.  Its  germinating  power  is  much  reduced  by  dry  storage  over 
winter.  The  devices  for  storing  acorns  might  be  used  as  well  for 
chestnuts.  Possibly  storage  in  the  husk  is  preferable.  At  Bilt- 
more  planting  of  Chestnut  on  abandoned  fields  is  very  unsuccessful, 
owing  to  enemies  and  poorness  of  soil.  But  abandoned  fields  ii 
Pisgah  Forest  often  show  fair  growth  of  chestnut — on  better  soil, 
especially  on  moister  soil.  No  experience  is  at  hand  relative  to  nut- 
plantations  on  good  land  newly  cut  over.  Cliestnuts  dibbled  in  at 
Biltmore  to  form  a  lower  story  beneath  Yellow  Pine  are  always 
eaten  by  squirrels. 

C.  Walnuts. 

Walnuts,  both  Black  and  White,  can  be  held  over  winter  like 
potatoes,  without  loss.  Yet  fall  planting  is  better  where  squirrels 
do  not  endanger  the  nuts. 

Walnut  has  done  well  planted  in  furrows  on  abandoned  fields 
at  Biltmore  where  soil  was  good,  without  cultivation;  on  poor 
soil  the  weeds  are  choking  it  to  death.  The  dibbling  of  walnut 
into  woods  just  cut  over  has  been  badly  handicapped  in  Bilt- 
more and  Pisgah  Forest  by  squirrels.  Otherwise  dibbling  is  the 
best  method  in  the  woods.  Possibly  the  attacks  of  squirrels  might 
be  prevented  by  late-spring  dibbling  of  nuts  in  sprouting  condition. 

D.  Birch. 

Birch  seeds,  are  very  small,  two-winged.  European  price  for 
Betula  lenta,  lutea  and  nigra,  .*2..50  per  lb.;    for  Betula   papyrifera, 

.51 


SYLVICULTUEE. 

C2c  per  lb.;  for  European  White  Birch  (Betula  alba),  8e  per  lb. 
Germinating  percentage  is  bad,  especially  if  seeds  are  not  kept  in 
lo6se  storage.  The  soil  requires  little  preparation  for  seed  plant- 
ing. A  heavy  layer  of  humus  must  be  removed.  Seed  can  be 
planted  any  time  from  fall  to  spring.  The  old  foresters  used  to 
plant  the  seed  on  the  snow, — so  as  to  have  the  seeds  washed,  into 
the  soil  by  melting  snow. 

The  southern  Birches,  being  solitary,  might  be  planted  in 
irregular  patches  or  trenches,  or  in  places  where  the  mineral  soil 
is  exposed  by  the  fall  of  trees  whirled  out  of  the  ground  with 
sttimps  and  roots.  European  Birch  is  very  modest,  thriving  well 
on  dry  soil. 

The  seedlings  are  very  hardy.  They  suffer,  however,  from 
weeds,  grass  or  leaves  blown  over  them  and  depriving  them  of  air 
and  simlight.     Betula  lenta,  at  Biltmore,  is  apt  to  "  damp  off." 

E.  Beech. 

Xuts  appear  every  three  to  seven  years  in  the  woods.  The 
nuts  ripening  in  October  had  better  be  planted  at  once  after 
ripening,  though  much  endangered  in  winter  by  mice.  Storage  over 
winter,  possible  as  in  White  Oak  acorns,  requires  still  more  care. 
If  spring  planting  is  resorted  to,  nuts  germinate  within  five  or  six 
Aveeks.  Beech  seedlings  must  have  a  shelter  growth,  and  cannot 
survive  in  the  open  (excepting  moist  mountain  slopes).  The  prepara- 
tion of  soil  is  made  with  hoe  or  spade  roughly,  to  a  depth  of  three 
inches.  Abroad,  Beech  is  often  used  for  an  undergrowth  in  pole 
woods  of  Pine,  Oak,  Tamarack,  Ash,  etc.,  with  a  view  to  im- 
proving the  humus  and,  indirectly,  the  boles  of  the  trees  forming 
the  upper  story.  "Beech  is  the  mother  of  the  soil,"  because  it 
furnishes  the  best  humus.  Beech  is  exacting;  it  requires  strong 
and  moist  soil.  Ptire  forests  of  Beech  are  found  at  Biltmore  at 
6,000  feet  elevation;  and  extensively  in  Swain  courftry  at  4,000- 
4,500  feet,- with  Poplars  as  standards  in  an  upper  story.  The  price 
of  German  Beechnuts  is  two  pounds  for  five  cents. 

F.  Alders. 

The  western  Alder,  Alnus  Oregona,  and  the  European  Alder 
are  valuable,  while  the  eastern  Alder  is  only  a  shrub  lining  the 
creeks.  European  Alder  is  invaluable  as  a  swamp  tree  and  for 
plantations  on  very  binding  soil  (clay  pits).  The  seed  of  tho 
European  species  is  worth  10  cents  per  pound.  Seeds  ripen  m 
October  and  are  best  kept  over  winter  in  the  cones.  The  small 
f^eedling  is  not  sensitive  to  heat  and  cold,  but  suffers  under  the 
heavy  grass  usually  found  in  swamps.    Since  swamps  are  inaccessible 


SYLVICULTURE. 

in  early  spring, — planting  of  seedlings  is  preferable  to  planting  oi 
seeds. 

G.  Ash. 

Seeds  are  abundant,  showing  about  70%  germination.  The  seed- 
ling, in  the  first  year,  develops  to  a  length  of  eight  or  ten  inches, 
from  seeds  covered  with  three-eighths  inches  of  dirt.  Little  prepara- 
tion of  soil  is  needed.  During  the  first  two  years,  on  good  soil,  a 
heavy  shelter  overhead  is  easily  borne.  American  White  Ash  may  be 
grown  in  slightly  swampy  soil,  or  soil  subject  to  long  inundations. 
Prices  of  Ash  seeds:  European  Ash,  4c  per  pound;  White  Ash,  25c 
per  pound. 

At  Biltmore,  White  Ash  seeds  planted  in  rows  six  feet  apart, 
on  abandoned  fields,  have  done  well  when  soil  cover  Avas  not  too 
heavj\ 

H.   Maple. 

Hard  Maple  seeds  ripen  in  September.  Silver  and  Red  ]\Iaple 
seeds  in  June.  It  is  wise  to  plant  the  seeds  just  when  ripe,  espe- 
cially American  species.  Price  of  seeds:  Acer  rubrum,  $3.00  per 
pound;  Silver  Maple,  $1.00  per  pound;  European  species,  4e  to  5o 
per  pound;  Sugar  Maple,  80c  per  pound.  The  green  germ  of  Amer- 
ican Maples  is  said  to  die  if  the  seeds  are  not  at  once  planted. 
Soft  Maples  develop  the  seedling  in  the  year  of  the  seed.  For  seeds 
to  be  planted  in  woods,  the  soil  is  prepared  with  the  rake,  and  the 
seeds  covered  with  one-half  inch  of  soil.  Maple  planted  on  abandoned 
fields  on  Northern  slopes,  well  watered  and  well  drained,  is  likely 
to  be  successful.  The  young  seedlings  are  sensitive,  and  a  coVer 
overhead  is  advisable,  where  late  frost  prevails.  On  rocky  soil  in 
Northern  coves,  Maple  seed  is  often  streA\n  on  the  rocks,  the  rain 
being  expected  to  wash  the  seeds  into  the  crevices.  At  Biltmore, 
Hard  Maple  is  found  only  at  elevations  exceeding  3,500  feet.  Sugar 
Maple  is  more  exacting  (in  soil)  than  Soft  Maple.  It  does  not 
grow  as  well  in  swampy  soil  as  Soft  or  Red  Maple.  Acer  negimdo 
(Ash  Leaf  Maple)  does  very  well  in  the  northern  prairies.  Seeds 
ripen  in  fall. 

L  Elms. 

Seeds  fiat,  roundish,  winged,  the  wing  surrounding  the  seeds. 
Seeds,  ripening  in  June,  must  be  planted  at  once,  since  they  cannot 
be  kept  in  dry  storage  (except  Slippery  Elm — pubescens).  Germinat- 
ing percentage  is  always  small.  Elms  require  such  good  soil  that 
they  can  be  raised  only  on  strong,  northern,  moist  soil  of  agri- 
cultural value.     Never  planted  broadcast;  in  suitable  localities,  seed 

53 


SYLVlCUl.TURE. 

might   be   planted   in  patelies   on   soil   roughly  prepared  with  rake. 
Very  little  cover  must  be  given. 

Seeds  c«st:  Ulmus  amerieana  22c  per  poiuid.  Ulmus  campestris 
Oc  per  pound. 

J.   Buckeye. 

The  Asiatic  species  is  valuable  in  deer  parks,  its  fruit  being 
eaten  by  deer  and  boar.  The  American  species  are  poisonous  (flava 
and  glabra).  Seeds  ripen  in  October,  winter  well,  but  can  as  well 
bi^  planted  in  fall.  After  Weise,  the  seeds  should  be  planted  Avitii 
the  navel  down.  First  class  soil  (Ohio)  is  required,  or  at  Bilt- 
inore  strong  North  coves  at  higher  altitudes,  where  Buckeye  is 
sometimes  found  in  small  groves.  Planted  in  furrows  on  abandoned 
fields  (Biltmore),  Buckeye  has  shoAvn  rapid  progress  during  the 
first  year,  but  has  since  made  small  shoots  only.  Seeds  of  the 
Asiatic  species  cost  214c  per  pound. 

K.  Black  Locust. 

The  seeds  ripen  in  fall  and  are  easily  kept  over  winter  ui.- 
injured  by  mice,  birds  or  insects.  To  prevent  seeds  from  lying 
over,  S.  B.  Green  advises  to'  pom-  boiling  water  over  them  just 
before  planting,  a  treatment  causing  many  seeds  to  sprout  at  once. 
The  fleshy,  oval  cotyledons  and  the  primordial  leaves  are  not 
pinnate.  The  tree  is  an  exception  to  the  rule  of  optimum  depth 
of  covering  (the  depth  of  long  diameter  of  seed)  since  it  does 
best  when  covered  2  to  3  inches  deep.  The  seedlings  are  sensitive 
to  late  frosts.  The  planting  had  better  be  delayed  until  the  danger 
of  frost  is  past.  The  price  of  seeds,  5-lOc  per  pound,  renders  Locust 
seeds  the  cheapest  seed  obtainable  since  the  germinating  percentage 
is  high.  The  seedlings  grow  until  late  fall,  when  they  reach  nearly 
two  feet  in^'height.  At  Biltmore,  Black  Locust  is  planted  into  Oak 
coppice  on  raked  patches,  with  the  rake,  and  on  abandoned  fields 
in  furrows  5  to  6  feet  apart.  Five  pounds  per  acre  is  enough.  Plan- 
tations suffer  from  ground  mice  and,  later  on,  from  a  moth.  Locust 
thrives  on  exhausted  agricultural  soil  and  is  used  in  Europe 
exclusively  to  reforest  the  Hungarian  prairies;  further  along  rail- 
road cuts.  Forest -grown  Locust  is  much  superior  to  field-gro^vn 
Locust. 

L.  Hickories. 

The  nuts  of  the  thin-shelled  species  (ovata  and  minima)  can- 
not be  held  over  winter  and  need  fall  planting.  Seed  plantations 
suffer  from  mice  and  squirrels,  and  especially  from  voles,  which 
bite  cff  the  seedlings  below  ground,  row  after  row.  Bitternut 
seems  exempt  from  such  attacks.     The  s-edling,  in  the  firp+  years, 

54 


SYLVICULTURE. 

spends  all  its  energy  in  developing  a  large  tap  root.  The  planta- 
tions at  Biltmore  made  in  furrows  on  abandoned  fields  might  have 
been  better,  had  they  been  cultivated  continuously  to  cheol-:  the 
mice  and  voles.  Hickoria  ovata,  1.3e  per  pound;  Bitternut,  Pignut 
or  Moekentut,  15e  per  pound.  Hickory  needs  fertile,  fresh  soil; 
the  "  Hickory  flats "  in  virgin  forest  are  convertible  into  superior 
farm  land. 

M..  Linden  or  Basswood. 

Seeds  falling  in  early  fall  are  always  poor.  The  ripe  seed  (in 
bunches,  attached  to  wingbracts)  falls  in  late  fall  or  winter.  Linden 
is  very  exacting  and  pure  woods  are  very  rare.  Planted  in  the 
forest,  it  serves  only  as  an  admixture.  Seeds  are  planted  in  spring 
on  soil  roughly  prepared  with  rake  or  hoe.  The  cotyledon  is 
typically  five-pronged,  hand  shaped.  The  young  plant  is  so  sen- 
sitive  that "  cover   overhead   is    strongly   advisable. 

N.    Cucumber    tree. 

Seeds  ripening  in '  cones  late  in  fall  are  removed  with  great 
trouble  by  hand.  Many  seeds  lie  over.  The  seedling  develops  on 
good  soil  a  very  long  and  strong  shaft.  For  forest  planting, 
Cucumber  is  used  only  in  patches,  mixed  with  Chestnut  and  Yellow- 
Poplar. 

0.   Yellow  Poplar  or   Tulip   Tree. 

Seeds  appear  annually;  of  very  low  germinating  percentage. 
Nature  plants  the  seed  between  October  and  May,  slowly  dis- 
membering the  cone.  Seeds  may  be  planted  in  spring  after  loose 
storage.  The  cones  are  apt  to  heat  and  mould,  if  tightly  packed. 
The  cotyledons  (size  of  a  nickel)  do  not  show  the  typical  lack 
of  the  tip  of  the  leaf  blade.  They  drop  oft"  (in  strong  seedlings) 
before  July  15th.  Seedlings  do  not  suffer  from  mice.  Heavy  rains, 
however,  are  apt  to  wash  them  out  of  the  ground.  The  young 
seedling  stands  a  good  deal  of  shade.  If  deprived  of  light  entirely, 
it  is  certain  to  be  killed  by  the  first  frost.  Seeds  cost  15c  per 
povmd.  Large  quantities  are  required  for  planting,  say  50  pounds 
per  acre.  Plantations  at  Biltmore  were  utter  failures,  probably 
owing  to  poor  seed.  The  seedling  grows  very  fast  when  young;  at 
the  age  of  two  years  the  seedling  is  three  feet  high,  on  good  soil. 
Where  planted  in  the  woods  it  is  necessary  to  check  the  weeds, 
especially  on  north  slopes. 

P.   Sassafras. 

It  might  be  planted  on  poor  abandoned  fields  as  usher  growth. 
At  Biltmore,  seeds  gathered  in  late  summer  have  failed  to  sprout, 
whether   planted   in   fall   or   spring.     The   fleshy   cotyledon   is    kept 

55 


SYLVICULTURE. 

lieloAV  ground  at  a  depth  of  say  one  and  one-half  inches.  Possibly, 
the  seed  must  pass  through  a  bird  before  it  can  sprout,  or  the  flesh 
must   be  peeled   off  by   hand   or   by   malting. 

Q.  Black  Cherry. 

Primeval  trees  are  found  only  on  fairly  rich  soil.  The  Cherry, 
however,  can  be  easily  i-aised  on  abandoned  fields  not  better  than 
tliose  at  Biltmore.  During  early  youth,  vnitil  pole  stage,  mice  and 
rabbits  peel  the  bark  badly.  The  end  of  the  annual  shoot  is  almost 
always  killed  in  winter.  The  small  purple  fruits  ripening  in  early 
putnmn  are  eagerly  eaten  by  birds.  The  seeds,  after  passing 
through  the  bird,  are  scattered  all  over  the  woods.  The  seeds  are 
easily  kept  in  winter,  but  lie  over  if  kept  in  a  dry  condition. 
A  hot-water  bath  before  planting  might  cause  the  seeds  to  ger- 
minate simultaneously.  In  woods.  Cherry  shouia  qe  planted  under 
one-half  inch  dirt  cover,  irregularly,  with  fvill  enjoyment  of  light. 
Seed  50c  per  pound.  The  seeds  might  be  planted  in  rows  on 
abandoned   fields   more   cheaply   than   the   seedlings. 

R.  Black  Gum. 

Nyssa  sylvatica  has  never  been  raised  on  a  large  scale,  owing 
to  the  loAV  value  of  its  timber.  As  an  undergrowth  or  admixture 
with  Hickory,  Ash,  Oak,  etc.,  it  might  prove,  however,  a  valuable 
tree,  owing  to  its  dense  leaf  canopy  and  owing  to  its 
shade-bearing  qualities.  The  seeds,  cherry-like,  dark  blue  in 
fall,  of  acid  taste,  seem  to  appear  annually,  and  old  trees 
are  often  surrounded  by  an  abundance  of  seedlings;  the 
latter,  very  light  colored,  are  four  inches  high  by  July,  showing 
two  heavy  oval  entire  cotyledons,  whilst  the  primordial  leaves 
show  the  proper  form.  Seedlings  do  not  sefem  to  suffer  from  frost, 
heat  or  animals.  On  abandoned  fields,  however,  Black  Gum  seems 
to  come  up  from  sprouts  and  not  from  seeds.  The  seed  is  not 
on  the   market. 

Paragraph  XVII.    Planting  seeds  of  the  coniferous  species. 

A.  Firs. 

Very  intensive  shade -bearers,  the  Firs  cannot  be  raised  without 
shelter  overhead.  The  yovmg  seedling  suffers  much  from  frost  and 
heat.  Its  six  to  ten  cotyledons  show  two  white  stripes  on  the  upper 
side.  The  young  plant  is  apt  to  die  'from  leaves  smothering  it. 
Its  height  growth,  to  the  seventh  year,  is  small  whilst  the  seedling 
tries  to  establish  a  root  system  and  to  cover  its  growing  space  by 
long    side   branches.      Fir    is    usually    planted    in    irregular    patches 

56 


SYLVICULTURE. 

as  an  admixture,  moss  and  mould  being  raked  away.  The  seeds 
losing  vitality  quickly  when  winter-stored  (unless  stored  in  the 
cones)  are  usually  planted  in  the  fall,  in  spite  of  impending  ravages 
of  mice  and  birds.  The  covering  is  from  one-fifth  to  one-third  of 
an  inch.  Since  the  cones  begin  to  dissolve  in  November,  they  must 
be  gathered  in  early  winter.  Abies  concolor,  $3.00  per  pound;  Abies 
fraserl,  $3.50  per  pound;  Abies  amabilis,  $4.50  per  pound;  Abies 
balsamea,  $1.00  per  pound;  Abies  grandis,  $3.00  per  pound;  Abies 
magnifica,  $5.00  per  pound;  Abies  nobilis,  $2.00  per  pound;  Abies 
pectinata,  5c  per  pound. 

B.  Spruce. 

Seeds  ripen  in  the  year  of  the  flower  and  are  emitted  from  the 
cones,  becoming  pendulous,  between  Xovember  and  April.  Thf 
seeds  are  easily  wintered  either  within  or  without  the  cones;  after 
some  authors,  preferably  in  the  cones.  Seed  years  occur  at  intervals 
of  about  five  years.  The  germinating  percentage  is  high.  The 
seeds  are  usually  planted  late  in  spring  after  bird  migration,  either 
broadcast  on  ground  roughly  raked,  or  more  often  on  interrupted 
beds  from  one  to  two  feet  wide,  prepared  with  hoe  and  slightly  raised 
over  the  general  ground  level.  It  is  said  that  a  man  can  plant  one 
acre  of  ground  in  eight  hours,  using  the  rake.  Previous  to  planting 
it  is  wise  to  moisten  the  seeds  in  cold  w^ater  for  from  three  to  five 
days,  especially  if  the  seeds  are  planted  in  late  spring.  The  cover 
should  be  one-fifth  inch.  Germination  takes  place  after  four  weeks 
with  from  six  to  eight  cotyledons,  serrate  on  the  upper  side.  Young 
plants  are  sensitive  to  drought  and  readily  raised  by  the  frost. 
Spruce  suffers  from  suppression  by  weeds  and  leaves.  Its  height 
growth  is  more  rapid  than  that  of  Fir.  Prices  of  seeds:  Picea 
canadensis,  $1.10;  excelsa,  13c;  engelmanni,  $5.50;  rubens,  $4.25; 
pungens,  $5.00;   sitkaensis,  $5.50  per  pound. 

C.  Yellow  Pines. 

On  dry  sandy  soil,  it  is  wise  to  plant  in  early  spring,  so  as  to 
find  a  moister  seed  bed.  The  young  seedlings  do  not  suffer  from 
late  frosts  and  are  not  apt  to  be  lifted  by  winter  frost.  The  removal 
of  stumps  stops  the  attacks  of  stump  breeding  bark  beetles  and 
snout  beetles  (weavils).  Intensive  loosening  of  the  soil  invites  the 
attacks  of  junebugs,  wire  worms,  etc.,  and  is  not  needed  on  sandy 
soil.  Broadcast  planting  is  advisable  on  soil  slightly  covered  with 
grass;  the  cover  should  just  be  scratched  with  the  harrow.  The 
seed,  unless  planted  with  the  rake,  is  embedded  in  the  soil  by 
driving  sheep,  cattle  and  hogs  over  it.  Before  planting  it  might 
be  wise   to  fire   the  ground,   notably   so  in   the  case  of  Jack   Pine, 

57 


SYLVICLLTUKE. 

Lodgepole  Pine  and  Norway  Pine.  Yellow  Pine  is  never  planted 
in  patches,  since  it  comes  up  in  larger  groups  only,  of  even  age. 
Planted  imder  shelter  it  would  not  obtain  enough  sunlight.  The 
seeds  are  often  planted  on  long  strips  two  or  three  feet  wide, 
separated  by  trenches,  the  weeds  and  dirt  removed  from  the 
trenches  being  heaped  on  the  strips.  On  the  very  driest  soil,  Jack 
and  Red  Pine  will  do  in  the  north;  in  the  south.  Long  Leaf  Pine. 
The  moisture  demands  of  Pinus  taeda  exceed  those  of  Pinus  mitis. 
Wet  ground  is  required  by  Cuban  Pine.  Pinus  ponderosa  may  grow 
on  any  soil  and  aspect,  north  and  south.  European  Pine  should 
not  be  tried  in  places  where  snowfall  is  lieaAy.  The  sand  dunes 
at  San  Francisco  are  planted  in  Monterey  Pine.  A  method  much 
used  abroad  some  80  years  ago  was  the  planting  of  Pine  cones 
(eight  bushels  of  cones  per  acre).  The  cones  were  moved  from  time 
to  time  by  a  brush  drag.  Another  old  method  for  raising  Pine 
consisted  in  planting  the  seeds  on  top  of  oats,  barley  or  summer  rye. 
The  cover  given  should  be  one-fifth  of  an  inch.  The  seeds  are 
mulched  for  three  to  seven  days,  before  planting,  in  cold  water.  Old 
seeds  are  apt  to  lie  over  for  a  whole  year.  Germination  occurs  in 
from  three  to  four  Aveeks.  The  first  leaves  stand  singly,  and  not  in 
sheathed  bmiches.  The  primordial  leaTes  are  strongly  serrate.  The 
germinating  percentage  is  high,  say  seventy  to  ninety  per  cent.  The 
seedlings  of  Pinus  rigida  creep  on  the  ground  the  first  two  years  as  if 
dwarfed.  Prices:  banksiana,  $5.00;  murrayana,  $10.00;  inops  or  vir- 
giniana,  $1.10;  jeffreyi,  $4.00;  mitis,  $10.00;  ponderosa,  $2.50;  pun- 
gens,  $4.50;  resinosa,  $&.00;  rigida,  $2.50;  European  Scotch  Pine,  50c; 
tuberculata,  $4.50;  taeda,  $10.00;  palustris,  $4.50  per  pound.  In  Jack 
Pine,  Lodgepole  Pine  and  Table  Mountain  Pine  the  seed  is  not  emitted 
Icr  a  number  of  years  from  mature  cones.  At  Biltraore,  mitis  drops 
the  seed  between  November  1  and  December  15;  Palustris  seeds  seem 
to  drop  l)efore  December  15,  since  seedlings  appear  by  middle  of 
January. 

D.  \^niite  Pine. 

■\^'hite  Pine  seeds  cannot  be  kept  as  easily  over  winter  as  Yellow 
Pine  seeds.  The  seed  matures  at  Biltmore  about  September  15, 
and  then  falls  at  once.  The  European  recipe,  to  gather  the  seeds 
when  drops  x>i  rosin  appear  on  the  cones,  is  misleading.  After 
gathering,  the  cones  should  be  fully  matured  by  exposure  to  sunlight. 
Cones  placed  in  heavy  layers — over  six  inches — after  gathering  are 
apt  to  mould,  when  the  seeds  will  be  destroyed.  White  Pine  emits 
seeds  easily,  placed  in  light  layers  on  wire  netting,  when  heat  is 
applied,  and  when  the  cones  are  stirred  several  times  a  day.     The 

58 


SYLVICULTURE. 

rooms  in  which  tlie  coning  takes  place  must  be  well  ventilated. 
Seed  years  occur  in  the  South  every  thi'ee  years — in  the  North  say 
every  seven  j^ears.  Mulching  before  planting  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary. Germination  after  three  to  four  weeks:  seven  to  ten  cotyle- 
d(ms,  primordial  leaves  singly.  Seedlings  suffer  still  more  from  fungi 
(honey  fungus)  than  Yellow  Pines.  Owing  to  the  high  price  of  seeds 
of  White  Pine,  the  seed  is  usually  planted  in  nurseries  only.  An  ex- 
periment at  Biltmore,  namely  planting  of  seed  without  preceding 
preparation  of  soil  in  patches  with  the  rake,  under  light  cover,  has 
proved  a  failure.  White  Pine  does  well  on  abandoned  fields  after 
fires — except  on  East  and  Southeast  slopes  where  flat-rooted  plants 
are  apt  to  be  lifted  by  frost.  Germinating  percentage  only  from 
forty  to  fifty  per  cent.     Seeds  cost  about  $1.50  per  pound. 

E.  Hemlock. 

Seeds  mature  toward  the  end  of  September,  are  very  small  and 
easily  removable.  Seedlings  are  very  shade  bearing  and  minute. 
Hemlock  cannot  be  grown  in  the  open.  Price  of  seed  being  high  and 
natvu-al  regeneration  being  easy,  plantations  will  not  .be  made  on  a 
large  scale.  Price  of  seeds:  canadensis,  $3..50;  heterophylla,  $8.00; 
mertensiana,  $5.50  per  pound. 

F.  Larch. 

The  cones  are  very  tough  and  not  easily  opened  by  heat.  It  is 
hard  to  separate  the  wing  from  the  seed.  The  germinating  percent- 
age is  low.  The  seed  is  planted  in  spring  on  open  ground,  usually 
in  patches,  mixed  with  Pines,  Spruces  or  Hardwoods.  The  planting 
of  seed  of  Northern  Tamarack  in  Northern  swamps  is  out  of  the 
question.  The  height  growth  in  early  youth  is  rapid.  Larch  puts 
heavy  demand  on  light.  Cotyledons,  five  to  seven  in  number,  appear 
four  weeks  after  planting.  The  seeds  are  mulched  in  cold  water  for 
at  least  a  week  before  planting.  The  primordial  leaves  stand  singly ; 
))raehyblasts  are  formed  only  from  the  third  summer  on.  Young 
shoots  never  show  braehyblasts,  but  needles  only.  Price  of  seed»: 
European  Larch  50c  per  pound;  Japanese  Larch  (leptolepis)  $2.50 
per  pound. 

G.  Douglas  Fir. 

It  had  better  be  called  Pseudoabies  than  Pseudotsuga.  Cones 
are  ripe  in  October;  bracts  are  twice  as  long  as  scales;  seeds  fall 
immediately.  Germinating  percentage  is  20  to  30  per  cent.;  seed 
received  from  dealers  is  apt  to  lie  over.  Thorough  mulching  or  hot- 
house treatment  (after  Weise)  increases  the  percentage  and  the  ra- 
pidity  of   sprouting.     Germination   takes   place   after   five   to   seven 

59 


SYLVICULTURE. 

weeks.     The  five  to  seven  cotyledons  are  pointed  and  show  two  white 
stripes  and  a  raised  midrib  above. 
Two  varieties  of  Douglas  Fir: 

a.  Pacific  Coast  Douglas  Fir,  growing  rapidly,  foliage  bluish, 
large  cones,  two  top  shoots  during  summer,  the  second  one. usually 
from  a  side  budf  '^ 

b.  Kocky  IMountain  Douglas  Fir,  known  as  varietas  glauca,  owii;a 
to  its  grayisli  foliage,  of  very  slow  growth,  greater  hardiness,  smaller 
cones,  developing  only  one  shoot  annually.  Price  of  seed:  $3.75  pt'i. 
pound. 

H.  Lawson's  Cypress. 

Cones  blue  brown,  globular,  only  six  scales,  small,  three  seeds 
under  scale,  seeds  two  winged.  Wing  one-twenty-fifth  inch^  wide. 
Seeds  mature  in  September  and  October,  falling  at  once.  150,00(T 
grains  per  pound.  Sprouting  with  two  cotyledons,  only,  one-fifth  to 
one-third  inch  long.  Young  seedlings  stand  shade.  In  the  sapling 
stage,  fungi  seem  to  play  havoc  in  the  plantations,  a  fact  which  may 
explain  the  small  range  of  the  species.     Seed  GOc  per  pound. 

I.  Western  Red  Cedar  (Thuja  plicata). 
Scales  of  cones  oval  and  upright,  covering  pairs  of  seed.     Seeds 
two-winged;  wings  one-quarter  inch  long,  elliptical,  drawn  in  at  top. 
One  pound  contains  .300,000  grains.  ■  Two  cotyledons  only.     Seed  co-st 
$2.25  per  pound.     Seedlings  stand  heavy  shade. 

Paragraph    XVIII.  Actual    planting    of    seedlings:  Introductory    re- 
marks. 

A.  The  forester  uses  seedlings  one  to  ten  years  old  or,  better 
still,  one  to  five  years  old.  The  planting  expenses  increase  at  a 
cubical  ratio  with  the  increasing  weight  of  the  plants. 

B.  Seedlings  are  planted  either  with  or  without  "balls"  of  dirt. 
They  are  taken  from,  thd  nursery  or  from  the  woods.  Yellow  Pinen 
over  three  years  must  be  planted  as  "  ball  plants."  Ball  planting  is 
ahvays  safer,  as  it  involves  a  small  loss  of  root  fibre.  Under  any 
circumstances,  it  is  wise  to  leave  as  much  dirt  as  possible  attaclied 
to  the  roots,  preventing  the  roots  from  drying  and  allowing  them  to 
quickly  re-establish  their  sucking  contact  with  the  pores  of  the  soil. 

C.  The  small  stemlet  of  young  seedlings  might  be  cut  off  befoie. 
planting  (stump  plants).     Advantages  of  planting  stumps: 

I.  In  case  of  Locust,  etc.,  lack  of  thorns. 

II.  In  case  of  tap  rooters  (Walnut,  Hickory,  Oaks  where  loss  of 
root  fibre  is  great),  rapid  re-establishment  of  the  equilibrium  pre- 
viously existing  betv/een  water-sucking  power  and  evaporation. 

60 


SYLVICULTURE. 

III.  Certainty  of  planting  the  seedlings  neither  deeper  nor  higher 
than  they  were  in  the  nursery. 

Conifers  cannot  be  stump  planted. 

If  stump  plants  of  Ash  or  Maple  are  to  be  used,  stumps  one  and 
one-half  to  two  inches  high  should  be  left.  In  the  case  of  Oak,  the 
stemlet  should  be  cut  off  just  above  the  point  or  differentiation. 
Stumping  seems  practicable  in  the  case  of  Chestnut  as  well,  and  Is 
often  applied  to  Catalpa,  Locust  and  Honej^-Locust.  Stumping  i? 
objectionable  on  account  of  the  rabbits  eating  the  new  shoots,  or 
where  weeds  are  rank. 

D.  Bunch  planting  is  often  practiced  where  very  small  seedlings, 
cheaply  raised  and  not  transplanted  in  the  nursery,  are  thereafter 
exposed  in  tlie  woods  to  atmospheric  hardships  or  to  damage  by  ani- 
mals. From  two  to  thirty  such  seedlings  form  a  bunch  planted  into 
one  hole.  Bunch  planting  is  applied  to  German  Spruce  and  Beech, 
although  losing  favor  with  the  foresters  abroad. 

E.  Plants  may  be  planted  irregularly  or  else  in  triangles,  squares, 
rectangles.  The  advantage  of  an  exact  regular  arrangement,  whicji 
may  be  obtained  with  the  help  of  long  planting  strings,  bearing  blue 
vAd  red  marks,  are: 

'  I.  Saving  of  time  and  expense.  Each  workman  is  kept  busy  by 
tlie  work  of  his  neighbor,  and  none  can-  fall  behind.  Supervision  by 
rangers  is  facilitated. 

II.  The  nvunber  of  plants  needed  is  easily  found  and  the  probable 
expense  is  more  accurately  estimated. 

III.  Small  seedlings  can  be  found  easily  in  high  weeds  or  grass. 

IV.  A  plantation  may  be  opened  to  pasture  at  an  earlier  date. 

V.  A  mixture  of  species,  and,  later,  underplanting  are  more 
readily  obtained. 

VI.  The  cleaning,  tliinning  and  pnming  of  the  plantation  is 
facilitated.  , 

VII.  Possibility  of  cultivation  between  the  rows  in  prairies  and 
on  abandoned  fields. 

The  triangular  form  gives  the  largest  number  of  plants  per 
acre,  distributes  the  growing  space  equally,  and  is  therefore  said  to 
raise  cleaner  stems.  The  arrangement  in  squares  allows  for  a  given 
planting  distance  15%  less  plants  per  acre  than  the  triangular 
system. 

The  rectangular  system,  though  scientificaflly  objectionable, 
practically  prevails  over  the  others.  The  plantlets  standing  close 
within  a  row  assist  one  another  from  early  times  on.  Planting  be- 
tween the  rows  and  the  cultivation  of  slopes  are  facilitated  within 

61 


SYLVICULTURE. 

rectangles.  It  is  said,  however,  that  the  saplings  form  large  side 
branches  and  retain  the  same  for  a  longer  period  of  years.  Rectangu- 
lar plantations  are  known  to  suffer  less  from  snowbreak. 

F.  Usuallj'  it  is  best  -to  make  the  holes  for  the  plants  before 
planting — unless,  on  clay  soil,  the  holes  are  apt  to  fill  with  water. 
The  making  of  holes  takes  more  time,  in  maiiy  a  case,  than  the 
planting  itself.  It  should  not  be  done  during  the  few  spring  days 
favorable  to  tree  planting. 

G.  The  rangers  should  make  all  needful  preparations  for  planting 
several  days  or  Aveeks  before  planting,  securing  the  seedlings,  "  heel- 
ing them  in  "  close  to  tiie  plantation  and  getting  the  implements  and 
tools  in  proper  condition. 

No.  of  plants     No.  of  plants 


Planting 
distance. 

per  acre  in 
squares. 

per  acre  in 
triangles. 

1    foot     

4.3,560 

50,650 

2    foot     

10,900 

12,674 

3    foot     

4,850 

5,640 

4   foot    

2,725 

3.168 

5   foot    

1,750 

2.034 

0   foot    

1,210 

1,407 

. 





Paragraph  XIX.  Criteria  of  good  seedlings. 

A.  The  root  system : 

The  root  system  should  be  as  compact  as  possible  and  as  rich 
in  fine  hair  fibres  as  possible,  qualities  which  are  only  obtained  in 
a  well-fertilized  nursery.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  small 
hair  fibres  are  the  feeders  of  seedlings,  and  that  the  stronger  roots 
act  merely  as  bones  or  as  the  skeleton  giving  the  plant  a  firm 
anchorage  in  the  soil. 

A  short  exposure  to  sunlight  and  to  dry  winds  kills  the  root 
hairs.  Roots  cannot  live  in  air  any  better  than  fish,  though  requiring 
oxygen  like  fish.  Toumey  claims  that  "  many  successful  planters 
never  set  evergreens  rmtil  the  root  tips  show  signs  of  growth."  This 
experience  is  entirely  at  discord  with  the  universal  European  ex- 
perience. Conifers  are  very  sensitive  against  loss  of  root  fibres. 
Fresh  tips,  evidently,  are  most  apt  to  be  injured  in  handling  or  by 
drought. 

The  pruning  of  the  root  system  is  a  necessary  evil  in  the  case 
of  very  long  tap  I'oots.  Conifers  do  not  allow  of  it.  Badly  damaged 
roots  may  be  clipped  with  a  sharp  knife  just  above  the  damaged 
point. 

62 


SYLVICULTURE. 

B.  The  shaftlet:  Crooks  are  not  injurious,  the  plant  healing 
them  quickly.  Slender  plants  are  not  desirable,  partly  because  they 
sway  badly  in  the  wind,  thus  getting  loose  in  the  soil;  partly  because- 
slender  shafts  are  due  to  excessively  close  position  in  the  nurseries. 
In  the  case  of  broad-leaved  seedlings  one  or  two  years  old  the  shaft 
of  spindling  specimens  may  be  cut  off  without  lasting  injury  (not 
in  conifers). 

C.  The  buds:  The  bvids  must  have  a  healthy  color,  a  large  size 
and  a  goodly  number.  Small  buds  prove  the  plant  to  be  weak;  so 
.that  it  has  a  poor  chance  to  withstand  the  hardships  of  transplanting. 
In  conifers,  the  condition  of  the  buds  is  especially  telling.  Poor  and 
few  buds  in  hardwoods  render  it  advisable  to  lop  the  stemlets. 

Paragraph  XX.  Age,  size  and  number  of  seedlings  used. 

A.  Young  plants  are  more  easily  transplanted  than  old  plants, 
the  loss  of  root  system  being  smaller.  Large  saplings  (10  ft.  high 
to  4  inches  in  diameter)  are  transplanted  only  at  great  expense  and 
great  risk.  They  must  be  transplanted  with  big  balls  of  dirt 
attached. 

B.  The  number  of  plants  used  per  acre  in  Europe  varies  between 
1,000  and  40,000  specimens  per  acre  in  case  of  Pines,  Spruces  and 
Beeches.     The  advantage  of  a  large  number  of  small  plants  is: 

I.  Better  chance  for  nature  to  select  the  fittest. 
n.  Less  reinforcing  required. 

III.  Even  imexperienced  planters  can  be  used. 

IV.  Plant  material  is  very  cheap. 

V.  Larger  returns  from  first  thinning  and  clearer  boles. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  advantage  of  planting  stronger  seedlings, 
especially  transplants  three  to  six  years  old,  lies  in  the  following 
points : 

VI.  On  poor  soil,  strong  plants  have  a  better  chance. 

VII.  Older  plants  have  already  overcome  the  "  measles  ''  of  child- 
hood— fungi,  insect  diseases — to  a  large  extent. 

VIII.  Such  plantations  sutler  less  from  snowbreak. 

IX.  The  rotation  is  shortened  by  a  number  of  years.  Iii  a  White 
Pine  plantation  made  with  seedlings  seven  years  old,  inst'^nd  of  seed- 
lings two  years  old,  the  rotation  is  reduced  from  fifty  to  forty  live 
years;  and  the  original  cost  of  planting  may  be  27%  higher,  figuring 
at  5%  interest;  22%  higher,  figuring  at  4%  interest;  l3%  hi'^her, 
figuring  at  3%  interest. 

C.  Generally  speaking,  Oak,  Hickory  and  Walnut  should  be 
planted  one  year  old  on  account  of  the  large  size  of  the  tap  roots. 

G3 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Spruce,  Fir  and  Hemlock  should  be  planted  three  to  five  years  old, 
after  previous  transplanting  in  the  nursery.  Ash  should  be  planted 
six  years  old  when  used  in  half  swamps  having  luxurious  growth 
of  weeds.  Yellow  Pine  must  always  be  planted  one  or  two  years  old, 
unless  ball  planting  is  resorted  to. 

After  Toumey:  For  the  prairies,  yearlings  are  best  in  case  of 
Cottonwoods,  Box  Elder,  Soft  ]\Iaple  (Soft  Maple  sprouts  in  June 
and  is  very  small  in  fall),  Russian  Mulberry,  Catalpa,  Walnut,  Black 
Cherry,  Locust  and  Honey-Locust.  At  Biltmore,  Black  Clierry  trans- 
plants three  years  old  do  very  well.  Locusts  two  years  old  are 
clipped  back.  Maple  and  Ash  are  transplanted  and  used  three  to 
four  years  old;  Yellow  Pines  are  used  one  or  two  years  old;  ^A'hite 
Pines  two,  three  or  four  years  old;  Catalpa  one  year  old,  etc. 

Paragraph  XXI.  Lifting  seedlings  from  nursery  beds. 

Tt  is  not  advisable  to  plow  the  seedlings  out  of  the  ground  or 
to  tear  them  out  with  tongs.  In  the  case  of  species  having  small 
reproductive  power  (Conifers,  Beech,  Birch)  additional  care  is  needed. 
The  spade  should  be  used;  and  the  plant  should  be  lifted  together 
with  large  clumps  of  dirt  which,  thrown  on  the  ground,  collapse  and 
allow   of   safe   extrication   of   the   plants    contained   in   the   clumps. 

It  is  wise,  carriage  charges  permitting,  to  allow  some  dirt  to 
stick  to  the  roots.  On  more  binding  soil  the  hollow  cylinder  spade 
might  be  used  for  lifting  small  plants.  Plants  should  be  well  covered 
with  burlaps,  wet  moss,  dirt,  etc.,  at  once  after  digging.  Plants  left 
for  a  number  of  days  between  the  plantation  and  the  nursery  should 
be  heeled  in  thoroughly,  shinglelike,  one  row  covering  the  other,  in 
a  shady  place. 

Paragraph  XXII.  Transportation  of  seedlings. 

The  roots  are  thoroughlj'  protected.  A  voyage  from  Europe  to 
I'.iltmore,  though  it  may  take  six  weeks  time,  will  not  injure  the 
plants.  Plants  are  loosely  put  together  in  bunches  of  one  hundred  to 
two  hundred  pieces,  are  placed  in  baskets  or  open  crates,  the  roots  in 
the  center,  the  tips  at  the  circumference.  Layers  of  plants  alternate 
with  layers  of  damp  moss.  Seedlings  packed  tightly,  especially  in 
boxes,  are  apt  to  mould. 

Plants  merely  taken  to  a  nearby  plantation  on  wagons  should 
be  well  covered  with  branches,  moss  or  sacks,  and  should  be  sprinkled 
during  transportation.  Ball  plants  do  not  need  packing  unless  balls 
are  very  loose,  when  burlaps  are  necessary.  One  hundred  Y'ellow  Pine 
ball  plants,  after  Rankin,  with  balls  ten  inches  square,  make  up  a  two- 

64 


SYLVICULTURE. 

horse  load.  Fifty  thousand  seedlings  without  balls  and  well  watered, 
or  eighty  thousand  seedlings  slightly  dampened,  usually  make  a 
wagon  load. 

Paragraph  XXIII.  Common  methods  of  planting  seedlings  in  the  open. 

A.  Planting  in  furrows. 

The  furrows  should  be  made  deeply  with  a  subsoil  plow.  The 
plants  are  distributed,  at  proper  distance,  in  the  furrows.  Then 
another  furrow  is  at  once  given  with  a  turning  plow,  throwing  the 
needful  dirt  over  the  plants,  wliich  are  thereafter  adjusted  and 
pressed  into  proper  site,  by  hand. 

This  is  a  quick  method  of  planting,  but  is  practical  onlj^  on 
prairies  or  on  abandoned  fields.  It  involves  the  danger  of  reckless 
spreading  of  roots  and  of  loose  imbedding  of  the  plant  in  loose  soil. 
The  plants  are  also  apt  to  be  placed  too  deep  and  to  be  shaken 
l)ad]y  by  wind.     The  method,  however,  yields  good  results  in  case  of 

I.  Stump  planting  (Oak,  Locust,  Catalpa). 

II.  Planting  many  one-year-old  seedlings  (so  that  a  large  per- 
centage might  be  lost  without  great  injury). 

III.  Plants  not  sensitive  to  deep  planting  (not  for  White  Pine 
and  Spruce).  Plants  placed  too  deep  form  a  second  root  systen'. 
close  to  the  surface  and  develop  a  bushy  bole,  useless  in  forestry, 
pleasing  in  a  garden. 

At  Biltmore,  the  furrow  method  was  used  by  Pinchot  at  the 
Shiloh  Crossing  plantation.  A  modification  of  the  furrow  method 
was  used  at  the  Rice  farm  in  1903,  where  deep  furrows  were  drawn, 
tlie  plants  inserted  by  hand,  covered  by  hand  and  adjusted  by  hand. 
A  planting  machine  (Dr.  Fernow's),  resembling  a  tobacco  planting 
machine,  is  not  used. 

B.  Planting  in  holes.  The  holes  are  either  holes  dug  with  the 
spade  or  clefts  wedged  into  the  soil.  Most  planters  mulch  the  roots 
in  loamy  water  so  as  to  increase  their  weight  and  so  as  to  reduce 
their  spread  before  insertion  into  the  hole.  The  root  fibres  suffer 
from  this  mulching,  however,  being  braided  unnaturally.  The  root 
tips  should  not  be  bent  upward.  The  depth  and  width  of  the  hole 
should  correspond  with  the  actual  size  of  the  root.  Several  plants 
might  be  placed  in  the  same  hole  to  save  expense.  Theoretically  it 
is  best  to  place  each  plant  in  the  center  of  its  hole.  At  Biltmore, 
however,  planting  in  the  lower  edge  of  the  hole  is  preferred  because: 

I.  No  root  is  hemispherically  developed. 

II.  Planting  at  the  edge  is  the  best  preventative  against  deep 
planting,   the   planter  holding  tlie   plant  with    the   left   hand  at  the 

05 


SYL\  ICULTUEE. 

point  of  differentiation  against  the  edge  of  the  hole,  when  drawing' 
with  the  right  hand  the  dirt  required  to  fill  the  hole. 

III.  Such  plants  are  firmly  imbedded  and  are  less  shaken  by  the 
wind.  On  forest  soil  it  is  wise  to  place  the  top  dirt  dug  from  the. 
hole  around  the  root  tips,  and  the  bottom  dirt  of  the  hole  close  to  the 
surface.  The  workmen  should  be.  shown  daily  by  the  forester  how  to 
plant.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  pulverize  and  loosen  the 
dirt  first,  and  to  then  press  and  beat  it  tightly  with  fist,  heel  or 
mallet  around  the  roots.  Some  planters  give  a  trifle  of  forest  humus 
into  the  hole;  others  carry  fertile  garden  dirt  in  baskets  to  the 
plantations.  The  placing  of  stones  on  the  hole  (as  refrigerators)  is 
recommended.  One  man's  work  at  hole  digging  per  day  is  300  to  3,000 
according  to  root-size  and  conditions  of  soil. 

C.  The  seedling  mvist  stand,  after  planting: 

I.  Firmly,  the  dirt  being  tightly  packed  around  its  roots,  so  that 
it  cannot  be  shaken  and  so  that  the  roots  may  establish  their  suck- 
ing contacts. 

II.  Naturally,  the  roots  having  the  same  manner  of  spreading 
and  ramifying  which  they  had  in  the  nursery. 

III.  Erect  and  just  as  deep  as  it  stood  in  the  nursery  (exception: 
barren  sand). 

Paragraph  XXIV.  Special  methods  and  tools  used  for  planting  seed- 
lings in  the  open. 

A.  Biermans  spiral  spade,  costing  $2.00,  is  pointed  parabolically, 
the  blade  being  IVz  inches  long  and  5  inches  wide.  When  used  bor- 
ingly,  this  spade  forms  a  parabolic  hole  and  loosens  the  soil.  With 
the  left  hand  the  seedling  is  pressed  against  the  side  of  tho  hole, 
while  the  right  hand  places  some  sod  ashes  (See  Par.  XXIX,  D.  VI.) 
immediately  over  the  fine  root  fibres.  Then  the  best  pan  of  the 
soil  is  used  to  fill  the  near  half  of  the  hole,  and  the  poorest  for 
filling  the  far  lialf.  The  instrument  is  adapted  to  hardened  soil. 
On  wet  and  binding  soil,  the  dirt  clogs  in  the  curves  of  tlie  spade. 
Capacity  per  hand  in  Germany  320  plants  per  day. 

B.  The  Planting  Dagger  is  used  for  Yellow  Pine  seedlings  one  or 
two  years  old,  to  be  planted  on  sandy  soil.  The  dagger  is  three 
inches  longer  than  the  longest  root.  It  is  made  of  wood,  iron  shod 
at  the  point.  It  makes  a  narrow,  funnel-shaped  hole,  which  is 
closed  by  pressure  from  another  hole  made  a  fe\*'  inches  from  the 
first.  On  loose,  sandy  soil  it  is  wise  to  plant  Yellow  Pine  seedlings 
'leeply — up  to  first  needles — since  Yellow  Pine  is  not  aflfected,  in 
that    soil,   by    deep    planting.     Daggering    is    the    cheapest    possible 

6G 


SYLVICULTURE. 

method  for  planting  Long  Leaf  Pine,  Jack  Pine,  Lodgepole  Pine,  etc. 
Capacity  800  to  900  per  day  and  hand. 

C.  The  Butthir  Iron,  once  much  used  for  thrusting  holes  into 
the  soil,  is  now  in  disfavor  since  it  causes  the  seedlings  to  be  in- 
serted into  holes  having  walls  as  impenetrable  as  those  of  a  flower- 
pot. Only  plants  one  or  two  years  old  can  be  thus  planted  ('"  cleft 
planted  ") . 

D.  The  Wartenberg  Iron  consists  of  a  sword  18  inches  long, 
attached  to  a  heavy  handle.  Price  $2.25.  Similar  irons  were,  made 
at  Biltmore  out  of  three-inch  wagon  tire,  at  a  small  cost.  A  deep 
cleft  is  made  by  the  iron  in  which  tap-rooted  seedlings  are  readily 
inserted.  On  binding  soil,  however,  or  in  a  broomsedge  field,  the  u';e 
of  this  iron  cannot  be  recommended. 

E.  The  planting  hammer  is  used  to  make  small  holes  for  siiu'U 
roots.  The  iron  part  of  the  hammer  is  abovit  five  inches  long.  The 
planting  hatchet,  a  sim.ilar  make,  may  be  used  to  advantage  for 
planting  one-year-old  plants.  The  holes  are  closed  by  beating  the 
dirt  round  the  holes  with  the  back  of  the  hammer  or  with  ths 
hatchet. 

F.  Von  Alemann  constructed  a  very  heavy  square  spade  whic'.i 
is  pushed  and  drawn  in  a  particular  way,  like  the  lever  of  a  haiidcav 
on  the  railroads,  so  as  to  make  the  lower  part  of  the  hole  wider  than 
the  middle  part,  the  cross-section  of  the  whole  forming  an  X.  If 
Oaks  are  planted,  an  extra  hole  is  made  at  the  bottom  of  that  mai'e 
with  the  spade,  by  means  of  a  long  dagger  in  which  the  tap  root 
of  the  oak  is  to  be  imbedded.  The  hole  is  closed  by  pressure  from 
the  sides.  It  seems  doubtful  whether  the  soil  will  close  entirely 
over  the  roots  imless  it  be  sandy.  One  man  can  plant  580  Oaks  tAvo 
years  old  or  1,270  Yellow  Pines  two  years  old  with  this  instrument 
on  plowed  ground. 

G.  The  Planting  Beak,  constructed  by  Barth,  makes  and  empties 
a  triangular  hole,  taking  out  the  dirt  filling  the  hole.  Plants  one  or 
two  years  old  are  placed  along  the  vertical  side  of  the  hole.  Then 
the  dirt  kept  in  the  beak  is  filled  in.  The  instrument  is  SVa  feet 
long  and  weighs  15  pounds.  It  is  said  to  be  superior  to  all  cleft 
planting  tools,  whilst  it  works  just  as  cheaply  on  loose  soil. 

H.  Planting  imder  sod  cover;  (Von  Alemann).  Two  sods  are 
turned  over,  like  the  covers  of  books,  and  laid  back,  upside  down, 
without  loosening  the  "  hinge  "  of  the  sods.  The  soil  in  the  hole 
is  deeply  worked  with  a  spade.  In  the  middle  of  the  hole  the  plant 
is  placed,  with  the  roots  spread  as  much  as  possible  within  the  entire 
hole.     Then  the  two  sods  are  turned  back  into  their  original  position, 

67 


SYLVICULTURE. 

BO'  that  tlie  seedling  stands  between  them.  This  is  a  good  method 
on  ground  where  frost  is  to  be  dreaded,  and  is  used  for  Asli,  Alder 
and  Water  Birch  one  to  three  years  old. 

I.  Mound  Planting  (Manteuffel).  Small  mounds  are  made  con- 
sisting of  rich  nursery  soil  to  be  carried  in  baskets  to  the  plantations. 
Tlie  plant  is  placed  into  the  mound,  its  roots  touching  the  vegetable 
mould  underneath.  The  mound  is  covered  with  sods  to  prevent 
erosion.  The  method  works  v.'e\l  on  very  dry  and  hard  ground. 
About  100  plants  are  planted  per  day  and  per  man  after  this  method. 
Its  advantages  are: 

I.  The  vegatable  cover  of  the  soil,  by  its  disintegration,  furnishes 
food  for  the  rootlets. 

II.  The  quality  of  the  soil  surrounding  the  roots  is  very  good. 

III.  The  soil  in  the  mounds  is  kept  moist  with  condensed  atmos- 
pheric vapor,  owing  to  its  greater  porosity. 

IV.  The  planter  is  not  likely  to  plant  the  seedling  too  deep. 
The  method  is  also  applied  on  very  wet  soil.     The  mounds  may 

be  replaced  by  ridges.  Experiments  have  shown  that  planting  in 
mounds  does  better  in  years  of  drought  than  planting  in  holes. 

Modifications  of  the  Manteuffel  method  are  in  common  use. 
Ordinary  soil  dug  out  at  the  planting  site  may  be  used  to  make  the 
mound;  or,  where  there  are  heavy  sods,  a  sod  is  turned  upside  down 
and  left  to  rot  for  a  year.  The  mound  thus  made  is  rich  in  plant 
food  resulting  from  the  disintegration  of  root  fibres  and  vegetable 
matter. 

Disadvantages  of  mound  planting  are: 

a.  The  mounds  are  easily  washed  away  on  slopes  unless  under 
cover  of  mother  trees. 

b.  The  best  soil  is  washed  out  if  the  mound  is  not  covered  with 
sods,  stones  or  brush. 

c.  Insects  and  mice  find  hiding  and  breeding  places^  In  the  sod- 
covered  mounds. 

d.  Mound  planting  is  very  expensive. 

J.  Ballplanting,  with  Charles  Heyer's  hollow  cylinder  spade. 

The  cylinder  spade  can  be  used  to  best  advantage  on  binding  soil. 
It  lifts  the  plant  (seedlings,  notably  conifers  one  or  two  years  old) 
from  the  nursery  without  loss  of  roots  and  prepares  for  it  a  hole  on 
the  ground  to  be  planted  having  the  exact  form  of  the  ball  of  dirt 
adhering  to  the  roots. 

The  method  is  particularly  safe  and  seems  particularly  adapted 
for  prairie  planting  since  it  protects  the  seedling  before,  during  and 
after  the  act  of  planting;  since  it  prevents  the  seedling  from  loosing 

G8 


SYLVICULTURE. 

its  foothold  in  the  soil  under  the  influence  of  high  winds;   since  it 
allows  of  planting  at  almost  any  season  of  the  year. 

On  stony  soil,  the  cylinder  spade  cannot  be  used.  Edward 
Heyer's  "cone  spade"  facilitates  the  transfer  of  larger  seedlings 
with  heavier  balls  of  dirt  from  the  nursery  or  from  the  woods  to 
new  plantations. 

Paragraph  XXV.  Season  for  planting  seedlings. 

Factors  influencing  the  season  are: 

Local  climate. 

Labor  available. 

Time  available. 

Species  planted. 

Theoretically  seedlings  should  be  planted  during  the  pe:  iod  of 
inactivity  of  roots  and  buds,  or  in  mid-winter.  This  thenr^tical 
demand,  however,  in  a  Northern  climate,  cannot  be  carried  out,  the 
ground  being  frozen  at  that  time.  Hence  the  choice  only  remains 
between  planting  in  late  fall  and  planting  in  early  spring.  After 
Engler,  roots  show  two  periods  of  active  growth,  viz. :  a  spring-and- 
summer  period  influenced  by  soil  moisture,  and  a  fall  period  in- 
fluenced by  soil  heat.  The  growth  of  the  roots  during  August  and 
September,  between  the  two  periods  mentioned,  is  very  weak. 

In  spring,  the  growth  of  the  roots  starts  in  March  and  April 
and  shows  the  highest  activity  in  May,  June  and  July. 

A.  Spring  Planting. 

The  seedlings  are  planted  before  the  opening  of  the  buds.  The 
moisture  left  in  the  soil  by  the  melting  snow  is  very  favorable  to 
their  growth.     Objections   to   spring  planting  are: 

I.  Scarcity  of  labor,  unless  forest  planting  begins  at  a  time  at 
which  fields  are  too  wet  to  be  worked. 

n.  Larch,  ]\Iaple,  Cherry  and  Birch  sprout  so  early  in  spring  that 
it  is  impossible  to  adopt  spring  -planting  in  their  case. 

III.  Moist  ground,  hummocks  and  swamps  are  not  accessible  in 
spring. 

rV.  The  soil  is  not  packed  as  tightly  around  the  roots  on  tho 
arrival  of  spring  as  is  the  case  in  fall  planting. 

B.  Fall  Planting. 

Fall  planting  is  preferred  on  wet  areas  and  in  the  case  of  early 
sprouting  species.  The  disadvantages  of  fall  planting  otherwise  out- 
weigh the  benefits  combined  therewith. 

I.  Seedlings  planted  in  fall  are  apt  to  be  heaved  up  by  the 
winter's  freeze. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

II.  The  severe  ^^inds  of  the  winter  h>osen  the  foothold  of  coni- 
fers planted  in  fall. 

III.  Fall-planted  seedlings  are  more  subject  to  late  frost,  open- 
ing their  buds  some  ten  days  earlier  than  spring-planted  seedlings. 

IV.  On  weedy  soil,  fall-planting  is  handicapped  by  the  pi'esence 
of  a  rank  growth  of  weeds  which  has  rotted  down  at  the  arrival  of 
spring. 

In  the  Southern  states,  even  at  Biltmore,  planting  in  January 
and  February  is  very  feasible,  perhaps  advisable  in  average  years. 

Ball  plants  can  be  planted  at  any  season  of  the  year. 

In  countries  of  periodical  rainfall  (California,  India  and  Porto 
Rico)  it  is  best  to  plant  just  before  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season. 

In  swamps,  summer  planting  or  early  fall  planting  is  a  neces- 
sity. 
Paragraph  XXVI.  Cultivation  of  plantations. 

A.  Practice:  The  European  forester  never  cultivates  any  planta- 
tions for  the  reason  that  his  plantations  are  made  immediately  after 
lumbering,  when  the  rootwork  and  the  stumps  on  the  ground  render 
cultivation  difficult.  Under  the  incident  conditions  of  soil  (humus: 
porosity),  cultivation  is  usually  not  required  for  the  success  of  a 
plantation.     Irregular  plantations  cannot  be  cultivated. 

The  forester  afforesting  sand  dunes  obviously  objects  to  cultiva- 
tion. 

The  forester  afforesting  swamps  finds  cultivation  impracticable. 

B.  Advisability:   Cultivation  is  advisable: 

Where  there  is  neither  humus  nor  rootwork  in  the  ground; 

Where  the  soil,  like  prairie  soil,  is  compact  and  hard,  lacking  in 
aeration,  porosity,  capilary  power,  hygroscopicity ; 

Where  competing  herbaceous  weeds  threaten  to  smother  small 
seedlings; 

Where  mice  or  soil  breeding  insects  prevail,  which  are  disturbed, 
exposed  or  killed  by  continuous  cultivation. 

C.  Frequency. 

The  forester  may  cultivate  up  to  three  times  per  annum,  during 
one,  two  or  more  years — sometimes  till  the  leaf  canopy  overhead 
secures  for  the  soil  a  solid  layer  of  humus  by  dense  shading. 

D.  Tools. 

A  bull-tongue  plow  is  used,  on  rough  ground,  for  plant  rows 
placed  less  than  three  feet  apart. 

Cultivators  are  used,  as  in  agriculture,  where  the  soil  is  loose, 
and  where  the  rows  are  far  enough  apart  and  the  ground  is  free 
from  stTunps  or  roots  or  holders. 

70 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Hoes  are  used  in  exceptional  cases  only,  where  labor  is  cheaj) 
and  where  the  soil  does  not  allow  of  using  teams  and  machinerj'. 

Mules  and  horses  are  muzzled  to  protect  broad-leaved  seedlings 
from  being  browsed. 

Paragraph  XXVIL  Prairie  planting  in  particular. 

A.  The  prairie  exhibits  as  marked  climatic  differences  as  the 
State  of  Georgia  compared  to  the  District  of  Labrador. 

"  General  prescriptions  for  prairie  planting "  are  impossible, 
owing  to  these  climatic  diversities. 

B.  The  species  used  must  be  adapted  to  the  quality  of  the  soil, 
the  intensity  of  summer  heat,  the  duration  of  the  summer,  the  soil 
moisture,  the  air  moisture.  Native  trees  should  be  given  the  pref- 
erence in  case  of  doubt. 

C.  Prairie  plantations  are  meant  either  for  production  of  timber 
(ties,  posts,  etc.),  or  for  shelter  to  stock,  hovise,  orchard  and  field. 

U.  Species  recommended  for  prairie  planting  are: 
L  For  Canada: 

White  Spruce,  Cottonwood,  Balm  of  Gilead,  Box-elder,  Green  Ash, 
Riissian  Poplar;  further  Yellow  Pines. 

II.  For  Minnesota  and  Dakota: 

Cottonwoods,  Soft  Maples,  Willows,  Ashes,  Box-elder,  Tamarack 
in  swamps.  Bin-  Oak  along  rivers. 

III.  For  Nebraska  and  Iowa: 

The  same  species  and  Red  Cedar,  Russian  Mulberry. 

IV.  For  Kansas,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma  and  Missouri : 

Osage  Orange,  Black  Locust,  Hardy  Catalpa,  Post  Oak  and 
White  Oak. 

E.  Naturally  we  should  expect  Xerophytic  species,  like  Yellow 
Pines,  to  do  best  in  the  prairies,  and  the  old  stumps  found  buried  in 
the  ground  bear  testimony  to  their  possibilities.  Being  evergreen  the 
Pines  protect  the  farmers  best  from  blizzards.  Still,  just  Pines  are 
most  apt  to  meet  with  distress  previous  and  after  the  act  of 
planting.  Ball  planting  should  be  tried.  The  European  Pinus  mon- 
tana  resists  wind  particularly  well. 

F.  Preparation  of  soil:  It  is  best  to  prepare  the  soil  thoroughly 
by  several  years'  field  crops.  Deep  plowing  is  required  (Tourney) 
in  the  fall  previous  to  planting  and  in  the  spring  of  planting. 

G.  Preparation  of  plants:  The  seedlings  arriving  at  the  farm 
should  be  removed  from  the  package;  heeled  in  under  shade,  pro- 
tected from  winds  and  sprinkled  if  frost  is  not  to  be  feared.    Toumey 

71 


SYLVICULTURE. 

wishes  to  puddle  plants  before  heeling,  and  desires  to  plant  the 
conifers  invariably  after  the  broad-leaved  kinds. 

H.  Planting:  The  planter  must  patiently  wait  for  proper 
weather.  Thorough  protection  of  the  roots  during  every  moment 
of  the  act  of  planting  is  essential.  Each  individual  must  be  planted 
by  itself — no  dozen  methods!  The  plants  should  be  set  closely 
within  the  rows;  the  soil  must  be  packed  tightly  round  the  roots. 
Reversed  sods  or  stones  may  be  used  to  ballast  the  roots  and  to 
prevent   the   wind   from    shaking   them    loose. 

I.  Cultivation:  Cultivation  is  necessary  up  to  the  time  when 
the  trees  cover  the  ground  fully,  littering  it  with  humus.  Where 
barefrost  is  dreaded,  cultivation  should  end  in  late  summer. 

Paragraph  XXVIII.    Methods  of  obtaining  plants  for  planting. 

A.  Frequently,  seedlings  are  obtained  from  the  woods  nearby, 
a  method  which  seems  to  recommend  itself  as  cheap  and  natural. 
It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  the  roots  and  the  buds  of  wild  seed- 
lings are  badly  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  planting.  The  former 
are  far-spreading:  the  buds  are  weak  and  few.  In  addition  it  is 
risky  to  take  plants  from  the  shelter  of  mother  trees  suddenly 
onto  open  ground.  The  use  of  wild  seedlings  over  two  years 
old  is  particularly  unsuccessful.  The  failure  of  the  timber  culture 
act  to  prove  efficient  is  largely  due  to  the  use  of  wild  plants  in 
prairie  plantations. 

At  Biltmore,  seedlings  of  Yellow  Poplar,  Yellow  Pine,  Ash  and 
Maple  are  often  picked  up  with  a  spade  and  taken  to  the  nurseries 
with  good  results.  Such  seedlings  are  taken  at  a  very  young 
age,  without  loss  of  dirt,  to  nurseries  placed  under  lath  screens. 
They  are  never  removed  directly  to  open  plantations,  with  the 
exception  of  ballplants  of  Yellow  Pine. 

B.  Purchase  of  plants  from  commercial  nurseries: 

During  the  "last  15  years,  a  number  of  financially  strong  com- 
mercial nurseries  have  arisen  abroad  which,  buying  seed  cheaply, 
located  on  suitable  ground  at  good  shipping  points,  enjoying  many 
years'  close  acquaintance  with  the  needs  of  Sylviculture,  have  sup- 
plied the  various  German  administrations  with  cheap  plants  of  a 
superior  grade.  The  Biltmore  Estate  has  often  obtained  plants 
raised  by  Heins  Sons,  Halstenbeek,  near  Hamburg,  notably  White 
Pines,  which  have  been  very  successful  in  spite  of  a  six  weeks  voyage. 
On  the  other  hand,  American  nurseries  usually  prepare  plants  only 
for  ornamental  purposes  and  not  with  a  view  of  fostering  the 
development  of  the  tree  bole. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Since  the  rangers  and  tlie  helpers  in  forest  planting  should 
know  the  sylvicultural  needs  of  tlie  seedlings,  it  is  surely  wise  to 
offer  them  object  lessons  at  lionie  through  self-administered  nurs- 
eries. 

C.  Nurseries  proper,  in  charge   of  the   forester. 

Where  mice  are  much  feared  the  nurseries  should  be  sur- 
rounded by  a  deep,  straight  walled  ditch.  Fences  are  made  of 
wire,  lath,  rails,  etc.,  differing  in  material,  strength,  height  and 
fineness  of  mesh  according  to  the  enemies  locally  dreaded. 

Proper  nurseries  yield  the  largest  percentage  of  seedlings  out 
of  a  given  quantity  of  seeds.  The  seedlings  raised  therein  have  a 
better,  more  compact  and  more  fibrous  root  system  than  wild  plants. 
Expensive  and  exacting  species  should  always  be  raised  in  "  forest 
gardens." 

There  may  be  distinguished: 

Nurseries  under  tree  cover. 

Shifting  nurseries. 

Permanent  nurseries. 

L  Nurseries  under  tree  cover  form  the  exception,  being  required 
only  for  the  production  of  seedlings  of  tender  species;  notably  of 
Hemlock,  Hard  Maple,  Beech.  The  nursery  is  formed  by  a  pole- 
wood  heavily  thinned  and  dug  over  with  the  spade.  Here  Beech- 
nuts are  planted  broadcast  or  in  furrows  and  the  seedlings  removed 
when  two  years  old,  without  transplanting.  Hard  Maple  and  Hem- 
lock  should  be  raised  as  in  open  nurseries. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  broad-leaved  kinds  often  thrive 
best  under  conifers  (Oak  and  Beech  under  Pine)  and  conifers  best 
under  broad-leafed  kinds  (Spruce  best  under  Beech,  Maple,  Birch). 
Only  theoretical  explanations  can  be  given  for  this  truism,  the  best 
explanation  being  the  difference  of  enemies  attacking  such  species. 

Objections  to  nurseries  under  tree  cover: 

a.  Soil  preparation  is  costly  and  insufficient. 

b.  Plants  raised  cannot  be  planted  in  the  open  without  loss. 

c.  Nurseries  under  tree  covei'  suffer  badly  from  mice  and 
squirrels  and  obtain  insufficient  rainfall.  On  the  other  hand,  weeds 
and  grasses  are  kept  down  by  the  shelter  overhead. 

Nurseries  imder  tree  cover  form  the  exception,  not  the  rule. 
II.  Shifting  versus  stationary  nurseries. 

The  advantages  of  stationary  forest  nurseries  over  shifting 
forest  nurseries   are: 

a.  Reduced  cost  of  tilling. 

b.  Reduced  cost  of  fencing. 

73 


SYLVICULTURE. 

c.  Reduced  cost  of  supervision. 

On  the  other  hand,  stationary  nurseries  suffer  from: 

L  Excess  of  weeds. 

2.  Higher  cost  of  transportation  of  seeds  and  seedlings. 

3.  Large  needs  of  artificial  fertilizing. 

4.  Danger  from  mice,  insects  and  fungi  for  which  such  nurs- 
eries act  as  incubators. 

For  raising  ball  plants,  the  shifting  nursery  is  undoubtedly 
best;  otherwise  the  selection  between  shifting  and  permanent  nurs- 
eries depends  on  local  conditions;  such  as  the  price  of  manure 
and  of  fencing;  charges  for  transportation,  etc.  Seed  plantations 
made  on  open  ground  are  often  used  as  shifting  nurseries — espe- 
cially so  in  the   case  of  Yellow  Pines. 


Paragraph  XXIX.    Permanent  nurseries  in  particular. 

A.  The  size  of  "  forest  gardens "  (the  German  name  for  sta- 
tionary nurseries)  depends  upon  the  quantity,  the  age  and  the  size 
of  the  seedlings  annually  needed.  Further,  on  the  presence  or 
absence  of  transplanting  beds,  fallow  beds  and  paths  between  the 
beds.     Regular  forest  management  has  forest  gardens  fitted  with: 

I.  Transplanting  beds,  their  total  size  being  equal  to  trans- 
planting space  by  number  of  plants  yearly  needed  by  nimiber  of 
years  which  the  transplants  are  left  in  such  beds. 

II.  Seed-beds,  their  total  size  being  equal  to  one-fourth  of  size 
of  transplanting  beds  for  one  age  class  by  number  of  years  which 
the   seedlings   are  allowed  to   stand  untransplanted. 

III.  Foot   paths   and   roads   equaling  30%   of  I  and  II. 

IV.  Fallow  beds  equaling  100%  of  I,  II,  and  HI.  if  seedlings 
and  transplants  are  left  for  one  year  only  in  their  beds;  50%  of  I, 
II  and  III,  if  left  for  two  years;  and  33%,  if  left  for  three  years. 

B.  Form  of  beds.  Beds  are  usually  four  to  six  feet  wide, 
separated  by  paths  one  or  two  feet  wide,  the  beds  preferably  ele- 
vated over  the  paths  by  from  three  to  twelve  inches,  so  as  to 
check  the  migration  of  insects,  mice  and  moles;  and  so  as  to  allow 
of  better  aeration  of  the  soil.  Sometimes  the  beds  are  kept  in 
board  frames,  an  expensive  though  useful  arrangement. 

C.  The  following  factors  must  be  considered  in  selecting  the 
site  of  a  nursery: 

I.  Soil:  A  sandy  loam  or  marl  is  best  for  seedlings.  The  correct 
degree  of  looseness  is  secured  by  mixing  sawdust,  spent  tan,  humus, 
ashes   and  weeds   with  the  mineral   soil.     The   soil   should   have   no 


SYLVICULTURE. 

stones,  in  order  to  allow  of  proper  seed  planting  and  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  digging  of  the  plants. 

II.  Exposure:  The  best  exposure  is  a  gentle  northwest  slope. 
The  bottom  of  a  valley  is  too  frosty  in  spring.  Southwest  and 
southeast  slopes  are  subject  to  rapid  atmospheric  changes.  East- 
ern aspects   invite   damage  by   frost. 

III.  Proximity  to  water  and  possibility  of  irrigation. 

IV.  Accessibility  and  distance  from  ranger's  house. 

D.  Fertilizing:  Stationary  forest  gardens  require  continuous 
fertilizing.     Ci'ops  of  seedlings  exhaust  the  soil  like  grain. 

The  following  table  exhibits,  in  pounds  per  acre,  the  amounts 
of  fertilizing  matter  annually  consumed  by  Pine  seedlings.  Pine 
poles  and  crops  of  rye. 

Yellow  pine        Yellow  pine         Crop  of 
Fertilizing  matter.  one  year  old.  eighty  years  old.       rye. 

Phosphoric  acid   9.8  lbs.  1.7  lbs.         16.7  lbs. 

Potash   20.7  lbs.  2.8  lbs.        24.2  lbs. 

Calcium 17.2  lbs.         lO.I  lbs.  9.7  lbs. 

Magnesia     3.0  lbs.  2.0  lbs.  4.2  lbs. 

Sulphuric  acid    .  . : 0.0  lbs.  0.3  lbs.  1 . 1  lbs. 

The   following  fertilizers  are  used  in  forest  gardens: 

I.  Animal  manure,  which  is  considered  best.  Cattle  manure 
is  preferred  to  horse  manure;  on  clay  soil,  however,  horse  manure 
is  better.  Heavy  weeds  come  up  from  stable  manure  which  has 
not  had  time  to  fully  decompose. 

II.  Commercial  fertilizers:  Experiments  conducted  with  super- 
phosphate, bone  meal  and  so  on  have  failed  to  yield  conclusive 
results.  The  best  kalium  fertilizer  seems  to  be  kainit  (kalium 
chloride) ;  the  best  nitrogen  fertilizer  is  saltpeter. 

After  Von  Schroeder,  the  following  quantities  of  phosphates, 
potash  and  nitrates  are  needed  to  raise  4,000,000  plants  on  an 
acre  of  nursery: 

520   lbs.   kainit. 

60  lbs.  superphosphate. 

320  lbs.  whale  guano. 

III.  Humus,  the  natural  forest  manure,  is  the  cheapest  fer- 
tilizer obtainable  in  the  woods.  Humus  of  Pines  mixed  with  that 
of  broad-leaved  species  is  best.  Humus  just  one  year  old  is  said 
to  be  richest  in  bacilli  favoi-able  to  tree  growth,  and  to  be  devoid 
of   filiform    fvmgi    disastrous    to   plants. 

The  weeds  removed  from  nurseries  furnish,  through  their  de- 
composition, a  valuable  humus. 

75 


SYLVICULTURE. 

A  mixture  of  humus  with  street  sweepings,  kitchen  refuse,  loa-.n, 
burnt  lime,  etc.,  is  often  placed  in  huge  heaps  near  the  rurseries. 
The  heaps  are  kept  in  a  rotation  so  that  the  heap  made  in  1903 
is  used  only  in  1906.  The  heaps  are  stirred  up  repeatedly  so  as  to 
be  actled  upon  by  the  air. 

IV.  Vegetable  matter  other  than  humus.  Such  fertilizer  may 
be  obtained  by  raising,  on  the  fallow  beds,  during  the  fallow  year, 
cowpeas,  clover,  lupine  (the  latter  on  sandy  soil)  and  other  legumin- 
ous plants,  all  to  be  plowed  under  in  fall. 

Legmninous  plants  increase  the  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 

V.  V.'ood  ashes:  Excessive  use  of  wood  ashes  is  disastrous  to 
sprouting  plants,  especially  on  sandy  soil.  Besides  kalium,  wood 
ashes  contain  from  5%  to  20%  of  phosphoric  salts.  Wood  ashes 
should  be  used,  however,  moderately  in  Yellow  Pine  nurseries. 

VI.  Sod  ashes  are  recommended  where  other  fertilizers  are  too 
costly.  Sods  of  grass,  of  weeds  or  of  huckleberries  are  dried,  the 
majority  of  the  dirt  removed  and  used  to  build  a  chimney  and  a 
kiln  resembling  a  charcoal  kiln,  wherein  layers  of  sod  alternate 
with  layers  of  brushwood,  waste  thinnings,  etc.  The  kiln  is  cov- 
ered with  sods  and  wet  dirt.  Kilns  burn,  according  to  size,  for 
from  two  days  to  two  weeks.  The  sod  ashes  contain  all  mineral 
fertilizers  needed;  have  great  hygroscopicity  and  are  free  from 
insects,  fungi  and  other  bearers  of  plant  diseases. 

Sod  ashes  should  be  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  for  a  year 
before  use,  and  should  then  be  well  mixed  with  the  top  layer  of 
nursery  dirt. 

Paragraph  XXX.     Seed  planting  in  seed  beds. 

Seedbeds:  Prescription  for  preparation:  Plough  and  cross- 
plough  to  a  depth  of  one  foot;  mix  manure  well  with  soil;  heap 
the  dirt  taken  from  the  paths  on  top  of  the  beds;  remove  stones. 

Seeds  are  planted  either  broadcast  or  in  drills  to  a  depth 
generally    equaling   their    longest   dimensions. 

A.  Broadcast  planting  is  always  used  in  commercial  nurseries 
while  the  sylviculturists  use  it  only  for  seeds  of  small  germinating 
percentage  (Birch,  Elm,  Beech,  Alder  and  Yellow  Poplar)  or  in 
case  of  very  light  grained  species  which  do  not  allow  of  any  covering. 

Broadcast  planting  is  permissible  if  seedlings  are  kept  in  the 
bed  one  year  only.  Economy  in  size  of  nursery  and  less  weeding 
are  the  advantages  of  broadcast  planting. 

With  the  help  of  a  roller  or,  better  still,  of  a  heavy  plank, 
the  surface  of  the  seed  bed  is  pressed  down  until  an  even  surface 

70 


SYLVICULTURE. 

is  obtained.  Then  the  seeds  are  planted,  dirt  or  fertilizer  or  sod 
ashes  sifted  on  top,  and  the  surface  of  the  bed  again  pressed  down 
as  before.  To  prevent  the  formation  of  a  crust,  a  cover  of  moss 
or  leaves  is  often  given,  to  be  removed  before  the  time  at  which 
the  cotyledons  are  expected  to  appear.  Better  than  moss  or  leaves 
are  coverings  consisting  of  Pine  branches  (exception:  on  Pine  seeds). 
B.  Planting  in  rills.  The  rills  are  from  one-fourth  to  three  inches 
wide;  made  with  a  "rill  board,"  a  plank  well  seasoned  to  which 
mouldings  are  nailed.  These  mouldings  may  either  be  square  or 
triangular  in  their  cross  sections. 

The  rills  are  from  five  to  ten  inches  apart.  Double  rills  are 
preferred,  lately,  in  Cermany.  In  order  to  economize  in  the  use  of 
fertilizer  and  in  order  to  obtain  a  compact  root  system,  trenches 
are  sometimes  made  and  filled  with  particularly  fertile  soil,  at 
a  distance  apart  equaling  that  of  the  rills.  These  trenches  are 
made  with  a  special  "trench  hoe,"  triangular  in  shape.  The  seed 
is  put  in  the  rill  with  the  hand,  with  the  help  of  a  reduplicated 
playing  card,  a  bottle  of  seed  or,  better,  a  stick  2"x4"  groved  on 
one  side  and  as  long  as  the  width  of  the  bed,  or,  best  of  all,  a 
hinged  gutter  into  which  the  seeds  are  filled  by  "  thimblef uls " 
or  "spoonfuls,"  evenly  distributed  in  the  base  of  the  gutter.  The 
gutter  is  placed  over  the  rill  and  opened  by  pressing  the  two  sides 
together,  when  the  seeds  drop  through  the  "  slot."  To  insure 
even  distribution  of  the  seed  in  the  gutter,  small  niches  may  be 
provided  at  short,  equal  intervals  at  the  base  of  the  gutter,  the 
aggregate  size  of  the  cavities  corresponding  with  the  quantity  of 
seeds  to  be  planted  in  each  rill. 

Advantages  of  rill  planting: 

I.  Economy  in  seed. 

II.  Stronger  plants  of  more  compact  form  grown  at  proper 
intervals  apart, 

III.  Economy  in  manure. 

IV.  Seeds  put  at  proper  depth. 

V.  The  foot  of  plantlet  can  be  easily  covered  with  moss  or 
leaves. 

VI.  Weeding  is  made  easy. 

Unless  very  experienced  help  can  be  had,  rill-planting  is  cer- 
tainly preferable.  Undoubtedly,  however,  insects,  mice  and  moles 
following  the  rills  do  greater  damage  than  in  broadcast  planting. 

The  quantity  of  seed  per  square  foot  of  seed  bed  depends  on 
the  number  of  seeds  in  a  pound;  the  germinating  percentage;  the 
quality  of  soil;   the  number  of  years  which  the  seedling  is  meant 

77 


SYLVICULTURE. 

to  stay  in  the  beds;  rapidity  of  growth.  Oak  2%  of  a  quart; 
Beech  and  Chestnut,  4%  of  a  quart;  Locust,  Ash,  Maple,  Elm,  Birch, 
30  grains;  Alders,  45  grains;  Fir,  150  grains;  Yellow  Pine,  15 
grains;  Spruce,  20  grains;  Tamarack,  30  grains;  avoirdupois — all 
per  square  foot. 

The  figures  given  are  illustrations,  not  prescriptions. 

Heavy   seeds    (nuts)    are   usually  dibbled  in,   with   a   "dibbling 
board." 
Paragraph  XXXI.    Transplanting  in  transplanting  beds. 

Transplanting  is  expensive.  It  must  be  done  at  a  time  when 
forestal  labor  is  anyhow  fully  occupied.  Transplanting  is,  there- 
fore, resorted  to  only 

A.  In  case  of  very  expensive  seeds  or  seedlings. 

B.  In  case  of  very  slow  growing  seedlings. 

C.  In  case  of  plants  exposed  in  the  open  to  severe  dangers 
(drought,  frost,  game,  mice,  insects,  weeds). 

To    avoid    transplanting,    the    following   alternatives    are   used: 

I.  The  offspring  of  very  cheap  seeds  (German  Spruce)  is  "  sin- 
gled out,"  weaklings  or  individuals  standing  croAvdedly  being  pulled 
out  by  hand,  or  being  cut  out  by  scissors. 

II.  "  Root  pruning "  is  adopted  which  inf orces  a  compact  root 
system  by  cutting  off,  with  a  sharp  spade,  far-spreading  roots,  or 
long  tap  roots. 

The  transplanting  distance  is,  at  least,  three  by  six  inches  and 
is  governed  by  rapidity  of  growth  expected  and  by  the  number  of 
years  which  the  transplant  is  to  be  left  in  the  transplanting  bed. 

Transplants  are  set  in  clefts  in  the  transplanting  bed  made 
with  the  help  of  a  transplanting  dagger,  or  are  placed  into  trenches 
made  with  a  hoe  or  spade. 

Planting  boards  may  be  used,  along  which  the  seedlings,  whilst 
pressed  into  equidistant  slight  grooves,  are  held  in  proper  posi- 
tion by  a  string  tightly  spanned. 

Transplants  are  often  left  for  one  year  only  in  the  trans- 
planting bed,  although  the  act  of  transplanting  weakens  the  plant 
temporarily,  thus  checking  the  first  year's  growth  in  the  trans- 
planting bed.  Conifers  should  not  be  transplanted  more  than  once. 
Hardwoods  are  rarely  transplanted  more  than  once,  excepting  the 
Ash,  saplings  of  which   are  used  for  planting  hummocks. 

Paragraph  XXXII.    Protection  of  nurseries. 

A.  Protection  of  nursery  plants  against  drought:  Lath  covers, 
cloth  covers,  branches,  cornstalks,  top  covering  of  slabs,  laths,  etc.; 

78 


SYLVICULTURE. 

cultivating   rows    of   plants;    watering    which   must   be    continued   if 
once  begun. 

B.  Protection  of  nursery  plants  against  frost:  Same  measures 
as  in  "A"  inclusive  of  watering;  smoking  fires;  pressing  seedlings 
lifted  by  frost  back  into  the  bed;  no  weeding  from  September  on. 

C.  Protection  against  excessive  rain  (which  washes  the  plants 
out,  or  splashes  them  with  mud-pants,  or  incrusts  the  surface) : 
Top  dressing  of  leaves,  moss  or  Pine  branches;  "combing"  mud- 
pants   off  the    seedlings;    lath   or  brush  covers. 

Paragraph  XXXIII.    Nursing  in  nurseries. 

A.  Weeding:  Weeding  is  facilitated  in  nurseries  by  a  regular 
arrangement  of  the  plants  and  by  narrow  beds.  Tools  are:  knife, 
fork,  hoe  or  special  weeding  wheels.  Weeding  shoufd  be  stopped 
a  month  before  frost  comes  in.  The  purpose  of  w^eeding  is  not 
only   the   removal  of   competitors;    it   is   also   aeration   of   the   soil. 

Weeding  can  be  dispensed  with  in  dense,  broadcast  seed  beds; 
in  thinly  stocked  beds  planted  broadcast  it  is  most  necessary  and 
most  difficult. 

B.  Cultivation:  Cultivation  in  the  transplanting  beds  of  com- 
mercial nurseries  (Beadle  at  Biltmore)  is  done  by  cultivators  drawn 
by  a  horse.  Cultivation  in  forest  nurseries  proper  purports  to  break 
the  crust  forming  under  the  influence  of  heavy  rain  fall.  Usually 
the  act  of  w^eeding  cultivates  the  soil  as  well.  Cultivation  is  most 
easily  effected  by  drawing  some  strong  nails  driven  into  a  stick 
along  each  rill.  This  cultivation,  at  the  same  time,  disturbs  and 
scares  away  mice,  A'oles  and  insects. 

C.  Carpeting  the  intervals  between  rills  or  rows: 

Reversed  moss,  spent  tan,  sawdust,  straw,  hay,  twigs  (always 
of  another  species),  poles  (never  fresh  cut  pine  poles,  which  are 
incubators  to  snout  beetles)  are  often  laid  between  the  rills  or 
rows  so  as  to  preserve  moisture,  to  prevent  mud-pants  from  forming 
on  the  stemlets  and  to  check  weeds.  These  carpets,  however,  har- 
bor mice  and  insects.  Large  leaves  in  the  carpet  threaten  to 
smother  young  seedlings  if  blown  upon  them. 

D.  Trimming.  The  top  shoot  when  killed  by  early  frost  or 
drought  might  be  cut  off.  In  no  other  case  must  it  be  touched. 
The  side  branches  of  broad-leafed  species  and  of  winterbald  coni- 
fers might  be  clipped  before  or  after  planting  and  transplanting  so 
as  to  reestablish  the  previous'  equilibrium  existing  between  water 
sucking  power  of  the  roots  now  checked  by  transplanting  and  water 
evaporation  from  the  crownlets  left  unchecked  by  planting.  Species 
having   a   heavy    central   pith    column   should   not   be   trimmed   too 

70 


SYLVICULTURE. 

close  to  the  stemlet   (Ash,  Catalpa,  Maple).     Ash  and  Catalpa  are 
apt  to  form  forks  which  may  be  prevented  by  timely  trimming. 

Large  broad-leaved  plants  planted  in  furrows  often  die,  when 
shaken  loose  by  winds.  They  may  he  saved  if  cut  to  the  ground 
previous  to  June   15th. 

Paragraph  XXXIV.    Special  nursery  methods  proclaimed  by  renowned 
sylviculturists. 

A.  Biermans'  method. 

Peel  the  soil  cover  of  an  area  four  times  the  size  of  the  seed 
bed  and  burn  the  sods  thus  gotten  into  sod  ashes.  Leave  them  over 
winter.  In  spring,  mix  one-half  of  the  sod  ashes  with  the  stirred 
up  top  dirt  of  the  intended  seed  bed.  Spread  the  other  one-half 
pure  on  .top  of  the  bed.  Smooth  the  surface  of  the  bed  and  press 
it  with  a  board.  Spread  seeds  broadcast  as  close  together  as  pos- 
sible, so  that  the  soil  is  hardly  visible  between  the  grains.  Cover 
seeds  with  sod  ashes  sifted  on  top,  and  press  the  cover  down  with 
a  board.  Transplant  the  young  germs  in  June.  Shorten  the  taproot 
of  Oaks  by  cutting  with  a  sharp  knife.  Oak  nurseries  should  be 
underlaid  with  impenetrable  soil.  Yellow  Pine  and  Larch  should 
be  used  in  the  open  when  one  year  old;  all  other  species  two  to 
three  years  old. 

This  method  yields  very  well  rooted  seedlings.  The  use  of 
sod  ashes  is,  perhaps  not  an  essential  featvu'e  of  the  method;  fer- 
tilizer or  manure .  might  be  taken  instead.  The  striking  point 
is  the  transplanting  of  germs  in  June. 

B.  Von  Buttlar  method:  Von  Buttlar  wants  to  raise  long  roots, 
not  compact  roots,  for  use  in  sandy  soil.  The  nursery  is  worked 
to  a  depth  of  three  feet,  the  bottom  soil  being  brought  to  the  sur- 
face. Larch,  Fir  and  Elm  seed  are  planted  broadcast;  all  other 
species  in  rills.  No  transplanting.  All  species  are  used  one  oT 
two  years  old. 

C.  Manteuffel  method.  The  plants  required  by  Manteuffel  must 
have  short,  fiat  roots.  Consequently,  the  best  soil  in  the  nursery 
should  be  the  top  soil,  and  the  ground  underneath  should  not  be 
worked  to  any  depth. 

Remove  by  peeling  the  top  layer  of  the  soil,  and  beat  the  dirt 
out  of  the  peeled  sods  onto  the  seed  beds.  Mix  it  with  the  dirt 
of  the  underground  in  fall.  In  spring,  burn  the  sods  and  other 
vegetable  matter  at  hand  on  the  beds,  mixing  the  wood  ashes  thus 
obtained  with  the  top  soil.  Spruce  shall  not  be  transplanted  and 
is  to  be  used  when  two  years  old.  Fir  and  all  broad-leafed  species 
must  be  transplanted. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Paragiaph    XXXV.      Raising   and   planting    hardwood    seedlings    on 
open  ground. 

Beech:  LTsiial  age  of  plants  fit  for  use,  two  to  five  years. 
Transplants  rarely  used.  Ball  plants  very  successful.  Bunch  plant- 
ing best,  especially  for  underplanting.  Do  not  cut  stemlet  to  the 
ground  and  avoid  pruning.  Planting  in  open  hardly  successful. 
Beech  best  for  underplanting.  Almost  light  demander  on  poor  soil. 
Beech  is  exacting  (good  soil  and  moisture).  Instruments  used  are 
hoe,  spiral  spade,  cleft   irons. 

Black  Locust:  Seeds  should  be  planted  two  to  two  and  one-half 
inches  deep,  an  exception  from  the  rule  considering  the  small  size  of 
the  seed.  Drills  eight  inches  apart.  Germinating  percentage  of  seeds 
very  high.  Seedlings  are  fit  for  planting  when  one  year  old.  Usually, 
however,  they  are  left  in  the  seed  bed  for  two  years,  and  are  then 
])lanted  directly  in  the  open.  The  planting  of  stumps  and  fall 
planting  are  strongly  recommended.  Plantations  handicapped  by 
twigboring  moth  (Ecdytolopha  species)  and  by  voles.  Locust  grown 
in  the  open  is   inferior  to  forest  grown  Locust. 

Linden:  Is  usually  planted  in  the  open  as  a  transplant  three 
to  four  years  old,  or  as  a  ball  plant  two  to  three  years  old.  Spring 
planting.  Good  soil  required.  Pruning  of  branches  a  necessity. 
Plantations  in  Biltmore  made  in  '98  on  splendid  soil,  but  without 
cover  overhead,  were  slow  to  develop. 

Oaks:  The  nursery  treatment  difi'ers  greatly  according  to  local 
likes  and  forestry  authorities  relied  upon.  The  treatment  of  the 
tap  root  is  a  continuous  point  of  dispute.  Manteuffel  cuts  the  tap 
root  one  and  one-half  inches  below  ground  (just  as  the  voles  did 
in  Biltmore  nurseries).  Buttlar  ties  a  knot  into  the  root.  Alemann 
forbids  any  crippling  of  the  tap  root,  making  an  extra  cleft 
in  the  planting  hole  to  receive  the  tap  root.  Levret  prevents  the 
development  of  a  tap  root  by  placing  the  acorns  on  small  macadam, 
covering  them  with  one  inch  of  dirt.  The  ground  underneath  the 
macadam  must  be  hard. 

Large  areas  of  Oak  planted  in  Xortliern  Germany  with  the  tap 
root  cut  off  prove  the  success  of  Manteufi'd's  method.  The  hollow 
borer  cannot  be  used.  Trimming  of  branches  is  all  right.  Roots 
should  be  pruned,  after  Fiirst,  with  a  sharp  spade  at  six  inches 
below  ground  in  the  second  spring.  Spring  planting  is  best.  Some 
planters  remove  the  first  germ  of  the  acorn  ("offgerming")  with 
a  view  to  stopping  the  development  of  the  tap  root — very  costly. 
Stump  plants  do  very  well,  especially  in  the  coppice  woods.    Usually 

81 


SYLVICULTURE. 

seedlings  one  and  two  years  old  are  jjlanted.  The  use  of  saplings, 
transplanted  repeatedly,  is  not  advisable.  Cleft  planting  of  seed- 
lings on  broomsedge  fields  at  Biltmore  proves  unsuccessful;  the 
weeds  choking  and  the  rabbits  eating  the  seedlings.  Cleft  planting 
in  cutover  woodlands,  however,  on  fairly  loose  soil  is  a  method 
to  be  strongly  endorsed.  In  France  the  clefts  are  made  inclined, 
not  vertical;  saplings  20  years  old  do  not  show  any  crooks  due  to 
the  method.  Planting  of  seedlings  or  of  young  transplants  in 
spade  holes,  in  furrows  or  in  clefts  made  between  the  lid  and 
the  pit  formed  by  reversed  sods  prove  successful  at  Biltmore. 
Young  plants  are  not  subject  to  lifting  by  frost  nor  do  they  suffer 
from  drought.  The  nursery  shovild  not  be  worked  deeper  than 
one  foot  while  the  success  of  the  final  plantation  largely  depends 
on  looseness  of  ground  at  a  greater  depth.  Generally  Red  Oak  is 
more  vigorous  in  early  youth  than  White  Oak.  At  Biltmore, 
Chestnut  Oak  is   the   best  species   for   abandoned  fields. 

Chestnut:  Soil  well  worked  to  a  depth  of  sixteen  inches,  kalium 
a  necessity,  lime  disastrous.  Seedling  planting  (plants  one  or  two 
years  old)    forms  the  rule;  planting  of  stumps  is  also  good. 

Since  Chestnut  is  very  sensitive  under  changed  conditions  of 
growth,  ball  jjlanting  is  probably  the  best  method.  Seeds  are  kept 
in  the  burrs  over  winter,  or  in  layers  alternating  with  layers  of 
dry  sand.  Immediate  fall  planting,  however,  is  best.  Nuts  are 
planted  in  drills  two  inches  deep  two  inches  apart,  the  drills  six 
to  twelve  inches  apart.  At  Biltmore  planting  of  seedlings  has  met 
with  continuous  failure.  Planting  under  cover  or  under  an  usher 
growth  is  probably  advisable.  Cliestnut  is  exacting,  needing  atmos- 
pheric as  well  as   soil  moisture. 

Tree  Alder:  It  is  usually  planted  as  a  transplant  three  to  five 
years  old.  Yearlings  are  too  small;  seedlings  two  years  old  can 
be  ball  planted.  Trimming  allowed.  Seeds  planted  broadcast  on 
the  beds,  one-fourth  inch  of  dirt  on  top.  Sprinkling  necessary.  No 
protection  against  atmosphere  needed.  On  swampy  ground,  fall 
planting   of   transplants   is  best. 

Birch:  Seeds  very  poor;  those  of  Black  Birch  mature  in  sum- 
mer. Seeds  must  be  covered  very  slightly  or,  better  perhaps,  must 
be  beaten  with  a  shovel  into  the  nursery  soil  after  broadcasting. 
Formation  of  crust  over  seeds  is  best  prevented  by  a  cover  of 
Pine  branches.  Under  lath  screens,  stems  are  apt  to  damp  off  in 
Jime.  Seedlings  are  planted  either  as  two  year  olds,  with  '  or 
without  balls,  or  as  transplanted  stumps  three  to   five   years   old. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Birch  is  sensitive  to  deep  planting;  is  not  affected  by  heat,  frost 
or  drought. 

Ash:  The  easiest  species  among  hardwoods  to  raise,  plant  and 
transplant.  Planted  as  a  seedling  one  year  old  or  transplanted  up 
to  three  times.  Plants  as  old  as  eight  years  can  be  planted  suc- 
'cessfully  without  balls.  Seed  is  placed  in  rills  seven  to  twelve 
irches  apart.  Where  soil  is  very  weedy,  large  and  strong  trans- 
plants must  be  used.  Planting  in  holes,  on  mounds  or  in  furrows. 
The  cleft  spade  is  also  penuissible  in  planting  yearlings.  Trimming 
is  not  advisable,  except  to  prevent  formation  of  forks.  Transplant- 
n^  of  germs,  in  June,  is  quite  successful. 

Elm:  Seeds  to  be  planted  in  summer  (excepting  Slippery 
>.lms),  just  after  ripening,  in  rich  nurseries,  and  to  receive  very 
light  cover  of  sand.  Seed  beds  must  be  sprinkled,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  a  crust  must  be  prevented.  Seedlings  cannot  penetrate 
a  layer  of  one-half  an  inch  of  dirt.  Usually,  transplants  three  to 
five  years  old  arp  ".sed.  Fall  planting  is  preferred.  Elms  stand 
trimming  easily. 

Maple:  Drills  lluee-fovu'th  inches  deep,  one  inch  wide,  twelve 
Inches  apart.  Transplanting  takes  place  when  seedlings  are  one 
or  two  years  old.  Seedlings  grow  i-apidly.  Fall  planting  is  pre- 
ferable. Planting  in  large  holes  is  best,  since  Maple  can- 
not form  a  compact  root  system.  Sugar  Maple  planted  at 
Biltmore  on  abandoned  fields  four  years  old  did  very  well  on 
North  Slopes,  in  pure  stands  as  well  as  mixed  with  White  Pine. 
Maple  is  easily  transplanted,  and  even  yearlings  or  two  year  olds 
might  be  planted  in  the  open  on  good  soil.  In  swamps.  Red  and 
Soft  Maple  are  preferable.  Sugar  Maple  requires  well  drained 
Boil. 

Yellow  Poplar:  Very  poor  seeds,  hence  broadcast  planting.  Cov- 
ering with  spent  sawdust,  instead  of  dirt,  seems  advisable.  Seed- 
lings transplanted  either  as  germs  in  first  summer  or  when  one 
year  old.  Very  rapid  growth  in  first  and  second  year.  Easily 
transplanted  in  holes  on  suitable  soil.  Seedlings  can  be  taken  in 
June  and  July  from  wood  roads  to  the  nurseries,  with  balls  of 
dirt.  Abandoned  fields  at  Biltmore,  planted  with  four  year  olds 
did  poorly  except  in  northern  depressions.  Strong  soil  needed. 
Compact  soil  not  unfavorable. 

Catalpa:  The  favorite  Kansas  prairie  tree.  Very  high  germinat- 
ing percentage.  Very  fast  growth  in  first  year.  Rills  one  inch 
by  one  inch  by  twelve  inches.  Seedling  plants  one  year  old  are 
strong    enough    for    planting.      Stump    plant-s    are    preferable.      At 

S3 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Biltmore  the  top  shoot  is  often  killed  by  frost;  it  should  cer- 
tainly be  cut  off  after  jilanting.  Catalpa  requires  wlieat  soil  in 
order  to  form  proper  bole,  and  does  not  answer  in  a  cold  climate. 
Spring  planting  in  holes  or  furrows. 

Walnuts:  The  planting  of  seedlings  is  only  permissible  where 
mice,  squirrels  and  hogs  are  sure  to  get  the  nuts.  Very  long  taps 
make  planting  difficult.  Best  soil  needed.  Small  seedlings  are 
choked  out  by  weeds.  Plants  one  to  three  years  old  to  be  used. 
Avoid  pure  plantations!  Cover  in  the  nurseries  three  inches — dis- 
tance apart  four  to  ten  inches. 

Hickory:  To  be  treated  like  Walnut;  during  the  first  years, 
the  stems  remain  very  minute  while  a  large  tap-root  forms.  Voles 
follow  along  the  rows  of  plants  and  cut  off  the  roots  at  a  point 
about  one  inch  below  ground.    Loose,  porous  soil  is  needed. 

Cherry:  Planted  in  rills  one-half  inch  deep  and  eight  inches 
apart.  Transplants  two  or  three  years  old,  transplanted  when  one 
year  old  are  best  for  use  in  the  open.  Protection  from  rabbits 
peeling  the  stumps  is  required.  Rapid  growth  in  nurseries.  Twig 
tips  are  usually  killed  by  the  first  frost  since  the  twigs  gi'ow 
during  the  whole  summer  and  fall.  Pruning  required.  Black  Cherry 
does  well  on  abandoned  fields  mixed  with  White  Pine,  Pine,  Ash, 
Maple. 

Sassafras:  Planting  of  seed  in  nurseries  at  Biltmore  has  been 
an  entire  failure.  The  seeds  lived  through  the  first  summer  but 
did  not  begin  to  sprout.  Deep  cover  required,  since  cotyledons 
are  kept  underground.  The  removal  of  the  flesh  enwrapping  the 
seed    (by  malting,  etc.),  seems  required  before  planting. 

Paragraph   XXXVI.     Raising   and   planting   softwood    seedlings    on 
open  ground. 

Yellow  Pines:  Seeds  are  covered  two-fifths  to  three-fifths  inches 
deep.  Nursery  soil  to  be  pressed  thoroughly  before  and  after  seed 
planting.  Planting  of  yearlings  (from  5,000  to  40,000  per  acre) 
forms  the' rule.  The  roots  of  such  yearlings  are  ten  inches  long. 
On  sandy  soil,  cleft  planting  is  universal  (with  planting  dagger). 
On  binding  soil,  ball  plants  one  or  two  years  old  are  best. 

Recently  some  forestecs  began  to  use  transplants  tw^o  years 
old  which  more  readily  overcome  the  infantile  diseases.  No  mound 
nor  bunch  planting.  On  very  sandy  soil  Yellow  Pines  are  planted 
deeper  (up  to  first  needles)  than  they  stood  in  the  nursery.  A 
plantation   ten   years   old   should   densly   cover   the   ground. 

84 


SYI.VICULTURE. 

Jack  Pine  (Pinus  divarieata)  does  very  well  on  the  poorest 
sand.  It  is,  however,  handicapped  by  deer;  very  rapid  growth. 
Pinus  rigida  crawls  on  the  ground  during  the  first  and  second  year, 
putting  up  a  strong  stem  thereafter.  Pinus  sylvestris  (Scotch  Pine) 
is  the  cheapest  that  can  be  planted  and  the  most  successful  species 
at  Axton.  At  Biltmore  it  does  exceedingly  well  on  dry  south  slopes. 
WHiite  Pine:  Quite  different  from  Yellow  Pine  is  the  ease  with 
which  it  is  transplanted.  Seedlings  one  year  old  are  very  small 
and  apt  to  suffer  from  leaves  smothering  them.  Seedlings  two  years 
old  have  been  planted  at  Biltmore  on  abandoned  fields  (in  holes) 
very  successfully.  Transplants  three  and  four  years  old  are  usually 
used.  Owing  to  its  greater  shade  bearing  qualities  White  Pine  may 
be  used  also  for  temporary  underplanting.  Seedlings  suffer  badly 
from  fungi.  White  Pine  is  subject  to  damage  from  too-deep  plant- 
ing. At  Axton,  the  best  and  strongest  individuals  fonn  a  second 
summer  shoot,  the  buds  of  which  are  killed  by  early  frost,  so  that 
no  top  shoot  grows  in  the  ensuing  year.  At  Biltmore,  the  second 
shoot   seems   to   be  safe  from  frost. 

Relative  to  other  White  Pines  (flexilis,  monticola,  albicaulis, 
lambertiana,  aristata)   no  information  is  available. 

Spruce:  Niirsery  rills  one  inch  wide,  five  inches  apart.  Trans- 
planting distance  usually  four  by  six  inches.  Slow  growth  at 
first.  Smallest  size  that  may  be  used  are  seedlings  two  years  old. 
Ball  planting  best,  bunch  planting  frequent  in  mountains.  Trans- 
plants three  to  five  years  old  are  preferable.  Plant  in  holes,  never 
in  clefts.  Very  sensitive  to  deep  planting.  Spring  planting  forms 
the  rule  except  in  high  mountains.  High  atmospheric  moisture  is 
a  prerequisite  for  Spruce.  Do  not  trim.  Number  of  plants  per 
acre  from  1,500  transplants  to  10,000  seedlings.  Pi,cea  excelsa 
might  replace  P.  rubens  (the  former  being  cheaper),  if  the  resist- 
ance to  snow-breaks  shown  by  rubens  were  equalled  by  excelsa. 
Plantations  twelve  years  old  should  fully  cover  the  ground. 

Firs:  Seed  should  be  planted  in  fall.  Rills  close,  say  four 
inches;  cover,  one-half  inch.  Early  growth  very  slow;  lath  screens 
very  essential,  owing  to  sensitiveness  of  youngsters  to  heat  and 
cold.  Transplants  five  years  old  are  best.  Planting  on  open  ground 
is  dangerous;  underplanting  is  very  advisable.  Species  most  planted 
are  Abies   pectinata,  balsamea,  concolor. 

Larch  or  Tamarack :  The  Western,  European  and  Japanese 
Larch  are  scattering  species,  doing  badly  in  pure  stands.  Growth 
in  early  youth  is  rapid.  Seedlings  two  years  old  and  transplants 
three  years  old  are  preferred  for  forest  planting.     The  distance  of 

85 


SYLVICULTURE. 

the  rills,  and  the  transplanting  distance  must  be  comparatively 
wide.  , 

Seedlings  might  be  cleft  planted;  but  hole  planting  forms  the 
rule.  Fall  planting  necessary.  Larch  permits  of  heavy  trimming. 
Mulch  seeds  for  one  week  before  planting.  European  Larch  does 
well  at  Biltmore  and  in  the  Adirondacks. 

Hemlock:  Grows  very  slowly  in  youth.  Seedbeds  require  heavy 
sheltering  (under  cloth  sci'eensO.  Transplant  the  two  year  olds,  and 
plant  the  fi^^e  year  olds  under  cover  in  the  woods. 

Douglas  Fir:  Seeds  are  still  expensive;  hence  transplants  four 
years  old  are  usual,  though  seedlings  two  years  old  are  certain  of 
success.  Hot-house  treatment  of  seeds  secur-es  early  and  simultane- 
ous sprouting.  Plant  seedlings  in  open  ground,  not  under  cover. 
Plantations  made  near  London,  Englaiid,  lose  the  long  top  shoots 
by  sea  winds;  at  Axton,  they  suffer  from  frost;  at  Biltmore,  the 
growth  is  strikingly  poor,  possibly  due  to  the  deficiency  in  atmos- 
pheric humidity.  Plants  14  years  old  are  hardly  chest  high;  plants 
11  years  old.  only  knee  high.  In  all  cases  the  Washington  variety  is 
used.  Varietas  glauca,  of  Colorado,  forms  one  summer  shoot  only, 
grows  sloAvly,  and  is  said  to  be  more  hardy. 

Jved  Cedar:  Juniperus  virginiana:  Seeds  lie  always  dormant  for 
one  summer.  Seedlings  two  years  old  are.  ready  for  planting.  High 
lath  screens  in  nurseries  advisable  (Green).  Very  slow  growth. 
Shade  bearing. 

Lawson's  Cypress:  Stands  intense  shade,  resists  frosts,  suffers 
from  fungi;  is  well  adapted  to  imderplanting. 

Paragraph  XXXVII.  Results  of  planting  experiments  with  American 
hardwoods. 

For  mahy  years,  the  governrtiental  forestry  bureaus  of  the  Gei"- 
nian  Empire  luxve  been  examining  into  the  merits  of  some  leading 
American  tree  species. 

Loeust  and  "Wliite  Pine  have  been  planted  so  extensively  that 
they  are  considered  to  be  "  naturalized  forest  citizens." 

In  a  number  of  instances,  the  European  vie\^'s  fail  to  tally  with 
the  results  of  American  investigations  made  with  reference  to  the 
syh  ics  of  our  leading  species."  ' 

A.  Fraxinus  amei-icana :  requirements  as  in  ex(,-elsa^,  stands,  in- 
undation better — even  long  ones! 

Germination  in  first-  spring;  no  overlying. 

Plant  seeds  in  fall,  or  else  in  early  spring  after  three, days  soak- 
ing.    One  year  old,  one  foot  high. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Use  transplants  two  oi-  three  years  old. 

Root  is  a  tap-root  with  many  side  roots.         .' 

Mayr  does  not  advocate  its  propagation  anywhere  in  C4ermany. 

B.  Catalpa  speciosa:  suffers  badly  from  short  summers,  often 
freezing  down  to  ground.     Hence  frequently  spreading  growth. 

Seeds  of  high  germinating  percentage. 
Use  either  seedlings  or  transplants  two  years  old. 
Light  demanding,  but  fond  of  side  shade. 

Mice  peel  at  point  of  differentiation;  all  game  aie  fond  of 
Catalpa. 

C.  Juglans  nigra:  mild,  fresh  soil  required,  and  long  warm 
summers. 

When  one  year  old,  strong  tap-roots  over  one  foot  long;  root 
fibres  at  end  of  tap-root  tip. 

When  two  years  old,  the  tap-root  is  over  two  and  one-quarter 
feet  long. 

Height  growth:  5  years  old,  5  feet. 
10  years  old,  13  feet. 
20  years  old,  35  feet. 

Decidely  .light  demanding;  fond  of  side  shade  in  early  youth. 

Yellow  Pine  shelter  wood  is  very  good:  More  shade  prevents 
lignification.    In  close  stands,  it  is  free  from  branches. 

Nuts  sprouting  late  (being  dried  out)  cause  shoots  to  be  killed 
by  early  frost:   Hence  pregermination  advisable. 

Frost  hard  in  sapling  stage. 

No  game  or  mice  enemies. 

Plant  nuts  or  yearlings  on  well -plowed  groimd,  and  cultivate. 
Plant  close  together,  so  as  to  avoid  branchiness.  Prune  lignified 
branches  only,  owing  to  heavy  pith  colnmn. 

D.  Prunus  serotina:  Modest,  provided  soil  is  moist. 
Light  demanding,  but  does  well  under  slight  Pine  cover.    . 
Roots  many  tapped,  strong. 

Height  growth  better  than  that  of  anj^  European  hardwood, 
save  Ash. 

5  years  old,     6  feet  high. 

10  years  old,  13  feet  high. 

15  years  old,  22  feet  high. 

Proof  against  all  effects  of  frost ! ! ! 

Rabbits  cut  and  peel   (also  mice)   j'oung  j^lants. 

Seed-beds:  plant  in  fall,  to  avoid  lying  over,  or  else  soak  in 
water  for  three  days  previous  to  planting  in  spring. 

87 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Use  transplants  three  years  old;  plant  close,  to  avoid  side 
branches. 

E.  Acer  saccharum:  Fresh,  sandy  loam,  or  fresh  sand;  forming 
stool-shoots  on  dry  soil,  and  no  stem. 

Growth  quick;  light  demanding;  strong  root  system. 

Forms  forks  frequently  15  feet  above  ground. 

Height  35  feet,  when  20  years  old. 

Most  frost  hard  of  any  Maple  species.  Game  and  rabbits  despise 
it. 

Seeds  mature  in  June,  and  can  be  planted  at  once,  but  are  just  as 
well  preserved  and  planted  in  spring. 

Use  seedlings  two  years  old,  or  transplants,  four  years  old. 

F.  Acer  negundo:  Requires  strong  soil;  does  not  do  on  dry  soil. 
Grow^th  very  quick  to  start  with — up  to  6  feet  in  2  years,  in  20 
years  50  feet. 

Development  of  lo^\-,  branchy  crown. 
Light  demanding,  frost  proof. 
Use  seedlings  one  year  old. 
Damaged  by  game  and  rabbits. 

G.  Acer  saccharinum:  Requires   strong  soil;   not  clay. 
Growth  slower  than  in  other  Maples,  up  to  fifth  year,  20  years 

old  35  feet  high. 

Apt  to  form  forks. 

Sensitive  against  frost  and  drought;  requires  shade;  does  best 
Avhen  used  for  underplanting. 

Use  transplanted  small  saplings. 

Never  plant  on  open  ground ! !  ! 

Mayr  recommends  it  only  for  sugar  orchards — not  for  timber 
production. 

H.  iietula  lenta :  Avoids  wet  frost  dells  and  poor  dry  soil ; 
forms  tap-root  on  sand  and  flat-root  on  clay. 

Height  in  5  years  5  feet;   in  20  years  36  feet. 

Growth  bushy  to  start  with,  but  soon  straight,  erect  and  free 
from  branches. 

Decidedly  light  demanding,  but  fond  of  side  shade. 

Xo  more  frost-proof  than  Beech.  Late  and  early  frost  damages 
it,  especially  on  wet  clay. 

Game,  rabbits  and  mice  are  very  dangerous. 

Seed-bed  should  not  be  dug  over. — Peel  off  the  top  cover  of  grass 
and  weeds  on  humose  sand;  hoe  the  soil  and  then  use  roller.  Plant 
broadcast,   one   pound   for  two   square  poles;    cover   by   sifting   one- 

SS 


SYLVICULTURE. 

twenty-fifth  inch  of  sand  on  the  seeds  and  roll  again  with  roller; 
keep  Pine  branches  on  the  seed-bed  until  after  germination. 

Use  tall  transplants  for  planting  in  the  open,  owing  to  animal 
dangers. 

Red  Birch  is  said  to  do  well  planted  with  Pine  on  abandoned 
fields,  further  united  with,  natural  regeneration  of  Beech. 

I.  Hicoria  ovata:  All  Hickories  require  strong,  deep,  fresh  soil. 
Not  on  clay. 

Pignut  is  satisfied  with  more  sand. 

Mockernut  is  satisfied  with  more  clay. 

Butternut  requires  water,  more  than  the  others,  and  stands  in- 
undation. 

All  Hickories  require  hot  summers  but  stand  severe  winters; 
hence  continental  climate  is  preferable  to  sea  climate. 

Tap-root  of  yearling  one  foot  long;  of  two  year  old  plant  one 
and  three-quarter  feet;  hence  transplanting  after  two  years  very 
difficult. 

Height  growth  begins  to  set  in  from  sixth  year,  and  is  good  then. 

Age     5  years,  average  height     2.4  feet. 

Age  10  years,  average  height     7      feet. 

Age  15  years,  average  height  13      feet. 

Age  20  years,  average  height  20      feet. 

Buds  open  late  but  shoot  is  quickly  made. 

Xuts  germinate  slowly;  hence  malting  or  better  repeated  sprink- 
ling with  liquid  manure  advisable;  many  nuts  lie  over,  even  for  two 
years.     Nuts  thoroughly  dried  lose  germinating  power. 

Malting  or  "  pregermination  "  advisable. 

In  the  case  of  Hickory  and  Walnut,  the  following  recipe  for 
pregermination  is  given: 

"  Make  a  ditch  three  feet  deep  and  wide ;  put  nuts  in  the 
ditch  to  a  depth  of  one  foot ;  fill  ditch  with  water  up  to  top  of  nuts ; 
then  add  a  slight  cover  of  straw;  then  dirt;  then  horse  manure. 

"  In  this  ditch  the  nuts  are  kept  until  planting  time,  when  the 
nuts  will  germinate  a  few  weeks  after  planting    (in  May)." 

Plant  seedlings  one  or  two  years  old,  or  else  nuts,  on  plowed 
groimd.     Cultivating  advisable. 

Late  frost  is  avoided  by  the  late  formation  of  shoots.  Early 
frosts  are  bad,  if  seedlings  did  not  have  time  to  lignify  owing  to 
late  germination. 

Avoid  planting  on  open  ground;  shade  is  born  readily  for  a 
number  of  years !  !  Straggling  plantations  often  develop  after 
natural   or  artificial  reinforcing   with  other  species. 

89 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Young  plants  suffer  from  mice.  Damaged  seedlings  should  be 
coppiced  down. 

J.  Hicoria  minima:  Height  growth  quicker  to  begin  with  than 
in  Shagbark. 

At  20  years,  however,  Shagbark  catches  up. 

Wood  much  poorer  than  in  Shagbark   (more  brittle). 

K.  Hicoria  glabra:  Like  Shagbark j  more  modest  as  to  soil; 
more  sensitive  as  to  frost  (?). 

L.  Hicoria  alba:  More  sensitive  than  Shagbark;  same  rate  of 
growth;  does  well  in  the  Westerwald,  badly  in  river  valleys. 

V 

Paragraph  XXXVIII.  Results  of  planting  experiments  with  American 
softwoods.  > 

A.  Pinus  divaricata:  Very  modest:  Stands  frost  and  drought 
and  does  not  shed  needles. 

•  Root  system  tap-rooted,  many  fibred. 

Height  growth  very  rapid,  several  shoots  per  summer.  Better 
than  Scotch  Pine. 

2  years  old,     8  inches  high. 

5  years  old,     5     feet    high. 

8  years'  old,  10    feet    high. 

Game  and  hares  handicap  it,  still  there  is  strong  reproductive 
power. 

Seed  one-half  pound  per  square  pole;  seed  has  60%  germination; 
cones  fertile  from  sixth  year  on. 

Use  yearlings  or  transplants  two  to  three  years  old  for  the  very 
poorest  soil. 

B.  Pinus  ponderosa:  Fails  absolutely  in  Germany,  probably 
owing  to  insufficient  summer  heat. 

C.  Pinus  rigida:  Very  modest;  does  well  in  salty  swamps; 
suffers  badly  from  snow-pressure. 

When  5  years  old,  7  feet  high. 

When  20  years  old,  32  feet  high. 

Growth  is  very  rapid,  but  from  12  years  on  P.  sylvestris  catches 
up  and  then  keeps  ahead. 

Diameter  growth  better  than  in  sylvestris,  too. 

Strong  reproductive  power  after  insects,  game,  fire. 

Very  light  demanding. 

Cones  seed-bearing  from  twelfth  year  on. 

More  proof  against  late  frost,  more  sensitive  for  early  frost  than 
sylvestris. 

Less  shedding  of  needles;   more  danger  from  game. 

Use  yearlings,  or  transplants  two  years  old. 

90 


SYLVICULTURE. 

J).  Picea  eiigelmanni:   likes  strong  but  not  wet  soil— it  is  winter 
frost  hard;  but  suffers  slightly  from  late  frosts. 

Root  system  deep,  many  fibred;  not  flat. 

Dislikes  top  shade. 

Yearling    only    one    to    two    inches    high;    two    years    old    four 
inches  high;  five  years  old  one  foot  high. 

Height   growtli   always   slow,   hence   easily   outgrown,   and  pure 
stands  required. 

,  Use  transplants,  five  years  old. 

E.  Picea  parrayana:   Very  frost  proof,  more  so  than  any  other 
Spi*e! 

Stands  wet  soil:   not  exacting. 

No  top  shade. 

Root  sj'stem  compact,  fine  fibred. 

Slow  early  growth,  as  in  Engelmann's  Spruce. 

Plantations    10   years    old   average    one   and    three-quarter   feet 
0!i1y  in  height. 

Animal  proof. 

V.  Picea  sitchensis:  Requires  moist  soil  and  moist  air. 

■Heat  requirements  as  in  P.  excelsa. 

Soil  requirements  less  than  in  P.  excelsa,  growing  both  on  sand 
and  on  clay.    Not  in  stagnating  moisture,  but  stands  inundation  well. 

Does  well  on  seashore  and  on  higher  altitudes. 

Height  growth  at  first  very  slow^;  from  fifth  year  on  better  than 
in  excelsa. 

Short  branches,  slowly   dropped;    close  stand  required,  fond  of 
forking. 

No  head  shade!     Side  shade  welcome  but  not  required. 

Frost  and  drought  "only  dangerous  during  first  and  second  year. 

Game  does  not  bother  it. 

Seed-beds  of  mild,  rich  soil  to  strengthen  weak  seedlings. 

Use  strong  transplants,  five  years  old. 

G.  Abies  amabilis:   Plants  five  years  old  are  still  very  sensitive 
against  direct  insolation  and  subject  to  late  frosts. 

Rate  of  gi'owth  as  in  A.  pectinata. 

H.  Abies    concolor:   Spring    shoots    formed    late;    resists    frost 
and  any  other  climatic  attacks  well! 

Not  exacting  as  to  soil,  doing  well  on  Scotch  Pine  soil  of  second 
quality,  provided  that  it  be  fresh.. 

Tap-root  formed  in  second  year. 

Height   growth   in  early   youth  better   than,  in   any   other   Fir: 
plants  eight  years  old  have  average  height  of  three  feet. 
91 


SYLVICULTURE. 

On  good  soil  even  Spruce  is  outgrown  by  it. 

Wood  light    (spec.  grav.  0.3.5)!! 

Seedlings  two  years  old  are  fit  for  planting. 

Sensitive  against  being  planted  too  deep. 

Seed-bed  treatment  as  in  A.  pectinata. 

I.  Abies  grandis:  Treatment  as  in  pectinata,  which  it  exceeds  in 
height  growth.     Soil  requirements  are  , the  same. 

J.  Abies  nobilis:  Frost  finn  in  winter,  even  unprotected.  Late 
spring  shoots  help  it  to  escape  late  frosts. 

Stands  dry  soil;  from  fifth  year  on,  more  light  demanding. 
Forms  strong  tap-root,  and  sometimes  several  branch  whirls  per 
annum.     Plantation  seven  years  old  is  three  and  one-half  feec  high. 

Plant  seedlings  two  years  old,  or  transplants  four  year.s  old. 

K.  Pseudotsuga  taxifolia:   Suitable  to  any  climate,  frost  proof. 

Soil  should  not  be  poorer  than  third-class  Pine  soil;  no  dimes; 
no  swamps. 

Root  tap-root  on  loose  soil,  flat  on  shallow  soil  or  binding  soil, 
showing  great  adaptibility. 

Height  growth  marvelous! 

Age     5  years  height     1.7  feet. 

Age  10  years  height  12      feet. 

Age  15  years  height  29      feet. 

Age  20  years  height  45      feet. 

Age  23  years  height  53      feet. 

Diameter,  23  years  old,  from  three  inches  to  ten  inches,  average 
seven  inches;  number  oftrees  per  acre  350. 

Close  stand  required  to  clear  from  branches. 

Light  and  heat  demands  as  in  Pic(?a  excelsa. 

Snow  and  sleet  throw  it  o-^r,  or  break  top  shoot,  the  latter  loss 
being  quickly  replaced  by  side  shoot  taking  lead. 

Game  is  a  very  bad  enemy. 

Use  transplants  three  to  four  years  old. 

L.  Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana:  Does  splendidly  in  Germany 
especially  in  the  Eifel  Mountains  at  1,500  feet  elevation. 

Frost-proof;  but  sensitive  in  drought. 

Exacting  like  Beech,  fond  of  limestone. 

Flat-rooted;  suffers  from  snow. 

Shade  bearing  in  early  youth;  fond  of  luilf  shade  later  on; 
always  fond  of  side  shade. 

Slow  in  clearing  itself  from  side  branches;  forms  very  close 
stands.  ^ 

92 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Very  slow  growth  to  start  with;  one  year  one  inch  higli;  two 
years  four  inches  high ;  ten  years  eight  ioches  high. 

Plant  seed-beds  broadcast.  Cover  completely.  Use  transplants 
four  to  five  years  old.     Sensitive  for  too  deep  planting. 

Game  are  very  bad ;  wood  mice  peel  the  stump,  or  cut  the  roots. 

Less  sensitive  in  late  frost  because  late  sprouting;  more  so  in 
winter  frost. 

M.  Juniperus  virginiana :   Avoid  poor  or  wet  soil.' 

Seeds  lie  over,  always;  .seedlings  one  to  two  years  old  are  very 
small  and  tender.  Side  shade  always  liked.  Suffering  from  weeds 
and  grass.     Red  deer  and  Roe  deer  bite  and  beat  it. 

Seeds  kept  in  ditches  over  summer  are  planted  in  fall. 

Use  yearlings  and  hole  planting. 

N.  Thuja  plicata:   Desires  good,  fresh  soil. 

No  swampiness!     No  dryness! 

Top  shade  or  side  shade  is  well  liked;  do  not  plant  in  open 
ground. 

Deep  root  system. 

Height  growth  slow  to  begin  with,  rapid  from  seventh  year  on: 

Age  1   J'ear;   height  1  inch. 

Age  5  years;   lieight  4'^  feet. 

Age  10  years;  height  8  feet. 

Age  15  years;  height  15  feet. 

Age  20  years;  height  23  feet. 

Slow  cleaning  of  bole;  very  dense  thickets  required. 

Seed  bearing  from  fifteenth  year  on. 

Sensitive  for  frosts  and  drought  during  first  years. 

Game  does  not  attack  it;  mice  destroy  young  seedlings. 

Seeds  are  planted  broadcast;  slightly  covered  with  dirt;  sheltered 
by  lath  screens. 

Strong  seedlings  three  years  old  (not  transplants)  are  used 
since  the  root  system  is  comparatively  small,  whilst  the  stem  system 
is  comparatively  large. 

O.  Tsuga    heterophylla:      Requires    strong    soil;    demands    side 
shade,  but  hates  top  shade.     Cannot  stand  open  situations. 
■^  Root  is  a  strong  tap-root. 

Height' growth  good  from  third  year  on. 

Top-shoot-tips  are  frequently  killed  by  first  frost,  without  any 
apparent  permanent  damage! 

Use  seedlings  three  years  old,  raised  by  broadcast  sowing. 

Shelter  seed-beds  well!      Sensitive  against  deep  planting. 

Mayr  prefers  heterophylla  to  canadensis  for  planting  in  Ger- 
many. 

93 


SYLVICULTURE. 
Paragraph  XXXIX.  Difficulties  of  natural  seed  regeneration. 

American  foresters  frequently  make  the  statement  that  the  axe 
is  the  best  sylvicultiiral  tool  inasmuch  as  its  proper  use  secures  a 
good  regeneration  free  of  charge.  This  statement  is  misleading.  It 
is  true  that  the  density  of  the  stand  of  the  second  growth  obtain- 
able from  natural  regeneration  is  frequentlj^  better  than  that 
obtained  from  artificial  planting.  On  the  other  hand,  such  a  stand 
can  only  be  obtained  under  favorable  conditions  and  at  a  great  in- 
crease of  logging  expenses.  While  the  cash  expense  of  natural  re- 
seeding  might  be  slight,  the  actual  expense  consisting  in  lessened 
receipts  frequently  exceeds  the  expense  of  artificial  planting.  In 
the  primeval  woods  additional  difficulties  of  seed  regeneration  lie  in 
the  following  points: 

A.  Ovei'aged  trees  have  poor  seeds. 

B.  Interference  with  the  leaf  canopy  overhead  at  once  invites 
danger  from  fire,  increased  by  the  debris  on  the  ground,  and  by 
the  impossibility  of  battling  against  fires  in  the  underbrush. 

C.  In  the  primeval  forest,  the  age  classes  are  usually  mixed  in 
an  irregular  manner;  hence  uniform  measures  for  reproduction  are 
out  of  the  question.  The  forester  cannot  generalize;  he  must  indi- 
vidualize— a  very  expensive  procedure  in  the  face  of  low  stumpage 
values. 

D.  The  virgin  forest  usually  contains  a  mixture  of  species;  the 
best  ones  only  are  removable;  the  weeds  and  worthless  species  are 
left  on  the  ground;  and  from  this  fact  arise  additional  difliculties 
to  propagate  the  most  valuable  kinds.  To  this  must  be  added  the 
difficulty  of  properly  gauging  light  and  shade  according  to  the  indi- 
vidualities of  the  species  mixed. 

E.  In  America  the  lack  of  a  permanent  system  of  transporta- 
tion necessitates  the  operations  to  extend  at  one  stroke  over  large 
areas,  whilst  natural  seed  regeneration  requires  the  gradual  removal 
of  mother  trees,  in  imitation  of  nature's  own  way  of  proceeding,  on 
small  and  restricted  areas  only. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  lack  of  permanent  means  of  transporta- 
tion in  primeval  woods  is  the  most  serious  obstacle  to  regeneration 
from  self-sown  seed  conscious  of  its  aim  and  its  effect. 

F.  Natural  seed  regeneration  requires  cutting,  according  to  the 
occurence  of  seed  years  and  according  to  the  development  and  re- 
quirements of  young  growth.  Hence  the  axe  must  be  independent 
from  the  fluctuations  of  market  or  mill  requirements,  an  impossi- 
bility in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time. 

94 


SYLVICULTURE. 

The  term  "natural  seed  regeneration"  does  not  jjreelude  arti- 
ficial help  to  increase  the  chances  of  regeneration.  The  term  merely 
implies  "  seeding,"  or  scattering  of  seed,  in  the  main  unaided  by  man. 
Man,  however,  may  carefully  prepare  the  seed-bed,  by  plowing  or 
lioeing  or  digging,  or  may  carefully  press  the  seeds  naturally  fallen 
into  contact  with  the  soil;  and  may  protect  the  seed  and  the  seed- 
lings, at  great  pains,  against  external  dangers. 

Little  help  is  given,  where  soil  and  stumpage  are,  and  promise  to 
remain,  of  small  value. 

Under  the  reversed  conditions,  the  expense  incurred  for  natural 
regeneration  often  exceeds  that  required  for  artificial  regeneration. 

In  innumerable  cases,  natural  and  artificial  regeneration  are 
locally  and  irregularly  combined. 

It  might  be  asserted,  that  the  forest  has  secured  its  own  re- 
generation through  many  millenia,  and  that  it  will  continue  to  do 
so'  unaided  by  human  activity.  Why  then,  it  might  be  asked,  is  it 
necessary  or  advisable  to  now  offer  costly  assistance  in  order  to 
secure  natural  reseeding  of  and  in  a  lumbered  tract  of  woodland? 

There  cannot  be  any  doubt  that  nature,  barring  bad  conflagra- 
tions or  heavy  pasturage,  will  start  and  develop  after  lumbering 
some  kind  of  a  second  growth  of  forest.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is 
usually  at  hand,  previous  to  lumbering,  in  an  embryonic  or  incom- 
plete state  waiting  for  the  chance  to  shoot  ahead  after  the  removal 
of  the  older  trees.  This  ready  nucleus,  however,  consists  as  a  rule 
of  inferior  or  worthless  species;  of  specimens  crippled  by  fire,  by 
the  fall  (accidental  or  otherwise)  of  nearby  trees,  by  the  logger's 
axe  or  foot,  by  teams  and  loads  passing  by,  etc.  In  addition,  many 
members  of  that  nucleus  will  die  when  suddenly  bereaved  of  the 
shelter  (against  drought,  cold,  hail,  etc.),  previously  exercised  by  the 
old  trees  now  removed. 

It  must  be  remembered  tliat  a  crop  of  weeds  usually  follows  in 
the  field  after  the  harvest  of  valuable  wheat;  in  the  forest  after  the 
harvest  of  valuable  timber. 

Such  "  weeds  "  are  unable  to  secure  for  the  owner  of  the  land 
a  sufficient  rate  of  interest  on  the  value  of  the  soil  and  an  adequate 
reimbursement  of  the  taxes  due  on  the  soil. 

Another  moment  worthy  of  attention  lies  in  the  poor  chances 
which  a  grain  of  seed  stands,  in  nature's  economy,  to  develop  into 
a  seedling,  sapling,  pole  and  tree.  The  probability  is  that  only  one 
grain  of  seed — out  of  millions  of  grains — produced  by  an  individual 
tree  during  its  lifetime  succeeds  in  reaching  tree  size,  replacing  it 
progenitor  on  the  forest  floor.     The  ecologic  incidents  bringing  about 

95 


SYLVICL-LTLEE. 

this  result  are  far  from  being  clearly  understood.  Still,  it  must  be 
the  sylviculturist's  aim  to  provide  for  these  incidents,  if  he  desires 
to  replace  the  old  crop,  removed  at  an  unnatural  rate  of  rapidity,  at 
an  equally  fast  rate  by  an  offspring  resulting  from  self-sown  seed. 

If  the  forester  were  satisfied  to  merely  remove  nature's  mori- 
bunds,  then  he  might  get  along  with  a  purely  natural  regeneration, 
entirely  unaided  by  human  skill. 

As  soon,  however,  as  his  axe  creates  in  the  forest  an  unnatural 
death  rate,  the  forester  is  compelled  to  also  secure,  by  intelligent 
means,  a  supernatural  rate  of  birth. 

Human  aid  to  natural  regeneration  should  be  denied  where: 

a.  The  danger  from  forest  fire  is  such  as  to  render  investments 
in  second  growth  very  unsafe. 

b.  An  outlay  incurred  for  protection  from  fire  is  not  apt  to  be 
refunded  with  interest  by  the  value  of  the  second  growth. 

That  much  aid  and  that  much  money  should  be,  in  all  other 
cases,  spent  for  the  pui'pose  of  regeneration  as  promises,  in  the 
owner's  mind  and  according  to  the  forester's  forecast,  the  highest 
relative  revenue  on   the  investments  made. 

At  Biltmore,  10%  of  the  annual  gross  receipts  are  annually  re- 
invested, to  be  applied  to  natural  regeneration  of  the  forest. 

Sylviculture  and  finance  are  continuously  at  loggerheads.  From 
the  business  standpoint,  however,  that  Sylviculture  is  certainly  best 
which  proves  lastingly  most  remunerative. 

Where  and  as  long  as  the  prospective  value  of  seedlings  is 
small,  only  a  small  exjiense  caii  be  reasonably  inciuTed  on  behalf  of 
their  propogation. 

Again,  seedlings  are  more  endangered  by  fire  than  trees.  Where, 
and  as  long  as  the  danger  from  fire  prevails  in  the  forests  of  the 
United  States,  investments  made  for  raising  seedlings  are  so  risky 
as  to  be  inadvisable. 

Paragraph  XL.  Age  of  trees  fit  for  natural  seed  regeneration 
(Enesar). 

The  age  of  perfect  puberty  depends  on  si^ecies,  density  of  stand, 
quality  of  soil  and  climatic  conditions.  Generally  speaking,  it  lies 
about  the  eightieth  year  of  the  trees. 

Birch,  Alder,  Larch  and  Yellow  Pines  may  be  seed-regenerated 
from  their  twenty-fifth  to  thirtieth  year  on;  Oaks,  Beeches  and 
Firs  from  their  sixtieth  to  eightieth  year  on.  Trees  of  very  old 
age,  say  over  200  years  old,  have  poor  seeds  and  often  defy  natural 
regeneration  if  occurring  in  pure,  even-aged  stands. 

!)G 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Paragraph  XLI.     Methods  of  natural  seed  regeneration  (Enesar). 

A  fixed  method  is  applicable  in  the  arts  only  where  a  fixed 
type  of  conditions  exists.  Fixed  types  rarely  exist  in  primeval 
woods.  Hence  the  impossibility,  from  a  sylvicultural  standpoint, 
to  adopt  any  fixed  European  method  of  seed  regeneration  for  direct 
application  in  American  practice.  A  second  growth,  obviously,  pre- 
sents a  more  fixed  set  of  conditions  (it  certainly  lacks  everywhere 
the  hypermature  age  classes)  than  a  primeval  growth;  and,  conse- 
([uently,  it  allows  of  a  more  methodical  treatment.  In  Biltmore 
Forest  methodical  treatment  is,  therefore,  permissible;  in  Pisgah 
Forest  it   is  not  or  not  yet  indicated. 

The   types   of   seed   regeneration  might  be  considered: 

A.  According  to  the  relative  position  of  old  and  new  growth: 

I.  The  young  growth  develops  underneath  the  old  growth: 

a.  Whilst  the  old  growth  is  left  intact  (natural  seed  regenera- 
tion by  advance  growth),  or 

b  Whilst  the  old  growth  is  gradually  reduced  (natural  seed 
regeneration  under  shelter  woods). 

II.  The  young  growth  develops  at  the  side  of  the  old  growth 
(natural  seed  regeneration  from  adjoining  timber). 

B.  According  to  the  size  of  the  units  of  regeneration,  which 
may  be: 

I.  Compartments,  i.  e.,  a  cove,  a  slope,  a  top  or  a  coherent 
part  thereof,  comprising  from  ten  to  one  hundred  acres. 

II.  Strips,  i.  e.,  figures  of  a  more  or  less  rectangular  form,  in 
which  the  length  is  a  multiple  of  the  breadth,  the  latter  not 
exceeding  500  feet. 

III.  Groups,  i.  e.,  aggregates  of  growth  of  a  more  or  less  cir- 
cular form,  covering  0.1   to  3   acres. 

IV.  Patches,  i.  e.,  areas  covered  by  the  crown  of  an  individual 
tree,  about  one  one-hundreths  of  an  acre  in  extent. 

The  figures  given  are  meant  to  illustrate,  and  are  not  meant  to 
define  (in  this  paragraph  as  well  as  in  the  following  fifteen  para- 
graphs). 

C.  According  to  the  degree  in  which  tlie  soil  and  the  youngest 
seedlings  are  directly  exposed  to  the  sky: 

I.  Regeneration   without   exposure — by   advance   growth. 

II.  Regeneration  with  short,  slight,  partial  exposure — under 
shelterwood. 

III.  Regeneration  with  entire,  heavy  exposure — from  adjoining 
timber. 

D.  According  to  the  timing  of  lumbering  and  of  reseeding: 

07 


SYLVICULTURE. 

I.  Lumbeiiiig  precedes  reseediiig — natural  seed  regeneration  on 
clearings,  namely : 

a.  On  uniformly  cleared  compartments  (cleared  compartment 
type) ; 

b.  On  cleared  strips    (cleared  strip  type) ; 

c.  On  cleared  groups   (cleared  group  type) ; 

d.  On  cleared   selected  patches    (cleared   selection  type). 

II.  Limibering  coincides  with  reseeding — natural  seed  regenera- 
tion under  shelterwood,  namely: 

a.  On  uniformly  sheltered  compartments  (shelterwood  compart- 
ment type) ; 

b.  On  sheltered  strips    ( shelterwood  strip  type ) ; 

c.  On  sheltered  groups    (sheltered  group  type) ; 

d.  On   sheltered   selected   patches    (shelterwood   selection   type). 

III.  Lumbering  follows  reseeding — natural  seed  regeneration  by 
advance  growth,  namely: 

a.  With  imiform  advance  growth  all  over  a  compartment  (ad- 
vance growth  compartment  type) ; 

b.  With  advance  growth  in  strips   (advance  growth  strip  type) ; 

c.  With  advance  growth  in  groups  (advance  growth  group  type) ; 

d.  With  advance  growth  in  selected  patches  (advance  growth 
selection  type). 

E.  According  to  the  participation  of  ligneous  weeds  (bushes, 
seedlings,  saplings,  poles  and  trees  of  a  negative  value)  in  the 
regeneration : 

Totally   successful   seed   regeneration; 

Groupwise  successful  seed  regeneration; 

Patehwise  successful  seed  regeneration; 

Individually    successful   seed   regeneration; 

Unsuccessful  seed  regeneration. 

In  America,  it  will  be  frequently  advisable  for  the  forester  to 
merely  work  toward  a  "  groupwise "  or  "  patehwise "  successful 
seed  i-egeneration. 

F.  According  to  the  number  and  according  to  the  distribution 
of  standards  left  in  the  regeneration  "area":  Natural  seed  regener- 
ation 

a.  With  standards  systematically  left  all  over  the  compart- 
ments ; 

b.  With  standards  left  in  strips; 

c.  With  standards  left  in  groups; 

d.  With   isolated   scattering   standards. 

The  "  compartment '  types  had  better  be  called  "  uniform " 
types ;   the  "  selection  "  types  had  better  be  termed  "  patch  "  types. 

98 


SYLVICULTURE 

Still  tlie  tei-ms  '•shelterwood  coiiipartment  system"  and  "shelter- 
wood  selection  system  "  having  become  standard  terms  of  forestal 
terminology,  it  seems  unwise  to   throw  them  aside. 

A  number  of  "  pure  types  "  may  be,  and  usually  are,  combined 
into  "  bastard  forms."  Of  course,  only  types  more  closely  related 
allow  of  bastardizing. 

Bastard  forms  frequently  found  in  the  old  country  are: 

"Advance  growth  selection  "  and  "  shelterwood  group  "  type ; 

"Advance  growth  group  "  and  "  shelterwood  compartment  "  type; 

"  Shelterwood  group  "  and  "  shelterwood  strip  '-'  type ; 

"Cleared  strip  "  and  "  advance  growth  strip  "  type ; 

"Cleared  group  "  and  "  shelterwood  group  "  type ; 

"Cleared  selection  "  and  "  shelterwood  group  "  type. 

Modern  forestry  abroad  begins  to  despise  methodical  ruli"^. 
gradually  returning  to  nature  with  her  irregularities.  Pure,  alj- 
stract  types  of  seed  regeneration  are   more  and  more   discarded. 

The  selection  of  a  method  or  a  combination  of  methods  depends 
entirely  upon  the  composition  of  the  growing  stock  found;  on  Iceai 
dangers;  on  local  means  of  transportation;  on  value  of  stvunpage 
and  prospective  value  of  seedlings. 

Where  all  age  classes  are  mixed  irregularly,  individual  selec- 
tion is,  ceteris  paribus,  indicated. 

Where  the  age  classes  or  the  species  appear  in  groups,  the  group 
method  is  or  may  be  advisable. 

In  woods  simultaneously  maturing,  the  uniform  type  may 
recommend  itself. 

The  following  paragraphs  are  arranged  to  conform  with  the 
view  point  given  under  "  D." 

Paragraph  XLII.    Types  in  which  lumbering  precedes  N.  S.  R. 

Where  lumbering  precedes  regeneration,  the  area  lumbered  must 
be  reseeded  from  the  borders  of  adjoining  woods.  With  inci'easing 
size  of  the  area  cleared  of  timber,  the  rapidity,  the  certainty  and 
the  quality  of  regeneration  rapidly  decrease.  The  fact  that  such 
regeneration  is  possible  on  a  large  scale,  is  readily  proven  by  object 
lessons  in  the  primeval  woods  (Long  Leaf  Pine;  Bald  Cypress; 
Lodgepole  Pine;  Douglass  Fir)  as  well  as  in  second-growth  forests 
(White  Pine  in  Lake  States;  Yellow  Pine  in  the  south;  Spruce  in 
the  Karpathian  Mountains). 

The    chances    for    success    depend    on: 

A.  The  species,  which  must  have  light  or  winged  seeds  readily 
carried  about  by  the  wind  (many  Pines,  Spruces,  Larches,  Cotton- 
99 


SYLVICULTURE 

woods,  Birches,  Yellpw  Poplar),  and  which  must  not  require,  during 
their  earliest  stages  of  development,  the  presence  of  a  shelterwood 
overhead. 

B.  The  coincidence  of  the  compass  direction  in  which  the  clear- 
ing lies  from  the  adjoining  woods,  with  the  direction  of  the  wind 
preferably  opening  the  cones  and  carrying  the  seed. 

C.  The  local  danger  from  storm  which  might  tear  down,  gradu- 
ally at  least,  the  adjoining  seed  trees. 

D.  The  condition  of  the  cleared  soil  and  its  quality  as  a  ready 
seed-bed,  influenced  bj'  the  jiresence  of  weeds;  by  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  humus;  by  the  degree  in  which  the  mineral  soil  has  been 
laid  bare  in  the  course  of  logging  operations;  by  the  grade  of  the 
slope. 

E.  Fires  favorable  or  unfavorable;  pasture  favorable  or  un- 
favorable to  regeneration,  as  the  case  may  be. 

F.  The  frequency  of  seed  years,  and  the  possibility  of  lumbering 
during  a  seed  year. 

G.  The  size,  the  form  and  the  environments  of  the  area  cut  over. 
H.  The  possibility  of  preventing  undesirable  species  (Gums,  Black 

Jack  Oak)  and  undesirable  specimens,  like  low-branched  weed  trees 
and  spreading  "  wolves,"  from  occupying  the  area  to  be  regenerated, 
and  the  possibility  of  regenerating  all,  a  few,  or  only  one  species. 

According  to  the  size  of  the  clearing,  we  distinguish  between: 

The  cleared  compartment  type    (large  areas  cleared) ; 

The  cleared  strip   type    (narrow  belts   cleared) ; 

The  cleared  group  type   (fair  sized  groups  cleared  away)  ; 

The  cleared  selection  type  (small  bunches  of  trees  or  merely 
single  trees  cut). 

Paragraph  XLIII.    The  cleared  compartment  type. 

A.  The  area  bared  at  one  stroke  by  lumbering  comprises  be- 
tween, say,  ten  and  one  hundred  acres.  If  the  width  of  the 
clearing  is  less  than  500  feet,  the  "  cleared  strip  "  type  is  reached. 
If  the  acreage  cleared  is  much  in  excess  of  100  acres,  the  develop- 
ment of  a  second  growth  is  very  slow,  very  poor,  very  doubtful, 
so  that  the  character  of  a  sylvicultural  type  is  lost.  A  number 
(say  five)  of  seed  years  are  required  to  restock  the  ground.  The 
bordering  woods,  from  which  reseeding  is  expected,  must  not  offer 
an  unprotected  front  to  the  prevailing  storm  direction. 

The  regeneration  obtained  is,  naturally,  very  heterogeneous  and 
contains  a  great  deal  of  misshapen  advance  growth  as  well  as  of 
weed  growth. 

100 


SYLVICULTURE 

Weeds  trees  left  on  the  ground  might  be  girdled  if  belonging 
to  an  undesirable  siiecies   (Beech  in  Galizia). 

A  few  seed  trees  might  be  left  scatteringly  (if  wind  firm)  in 
groups  or  in  strips,  preferably  close  to  the  roads,  often  consisting 
of  doty  specimens   without  any   value. 

An  usher  growth  of  Cottonwoods,  Birches,  Sumac,  Locust,  Sassa- 
fras, etc.,  frequently  precedes  the  second  growth  desired  on  the 
ground. 

Fires  preceding  the  seeding,  and  immediately  in  the  wake  of 
logging,  greatly  enhance  the  success  of  Yellow  Pines,  Douglas  Fir, 
etc.  Y^ellow  Poplar,  on  the  other  hand,  is  checked  by  the  heavy 
growth  of  weeds  following  fires.  Stock  pasture  is  of  advantage, 
where  it  presses  the  seeds  into  the  soil,  and  where  it  checks  the 
weeds. 

The  clearing  should  comprise,  if  possible,  only  one  side  of  a 
cove  at  a  time  or  the  lower  part  of  a  slope  or  the  bottom  of  a 
cove,  so  as  to  allow  of  greater  ease  in  reseeding. 

B.  Actual  application:  This  type  has  been  adopted, — not  con- 
fessedly but  actually — by  the  Austrian  Government  in  dealing  with 
the  primeval  woods  of  Galizia,  consisting  of  Beech,  Fir  and  Spruce. 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry  has  tried  to  adopt  it,  in  modified  form, 
for  the  IMinnesota  National  Forest  Reserve  and  for  the  majority  of 
its  business-working  plans    (Sawyer  and  Austin;   Weyerhiiuser). 

Thousands  of  acres  of  abandoned  farm  land  all  over  the  Eastern 
States  have  been  reforested  in  this  manner,  frequently  against  the 
owner's  will. 

C.  Advantages:  The  cleared  compartment  type  shows  the  fol- 
lowing advantages: 

I.  Greatest  ease  in  lumbering. 

II.  Concentrated  operations  and  concentrated  supervision. 

III.  Few   permanent   main   links   of   transportation   required. 

IV.  Smallest  deviation  from  the  old-time  manner  of  destruc- 
tiA-e  lumbering. 

V.  Possibility  of  temporary  use  of  the  clearing  for  the  pro- 
duction of  field  crops  benefited  by  the  fertilizing  effect  of  the 
humus. 

VI.  Ease  of  artificial  reinforcing  and  possibility  of  soil  prepara- 
tion by  plowing  and  by  firing;   of  covering  the  seeds  by  pasturage. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Applicability  to  few  species  only. 

II.  Danger  of  partial  or  complete  failure,  especially  in  clearings 
covering  100  or  more  acres,  or  in  case  of  border  trees  unfavorably 
situated.. 

101 


SYLVICULTURE 

III.  Danger  from  heavy  fires  where  the  soil  and  the  humus  is 
baked  by  the  action  of  the  sun,  with  heaps  of  debris  left  on  the 
ground  after  wholesale   logging. 

IV.  Second  growth  consists  largely  of  wolves,  and  of  spreading 
advance  growth  and  of  poles  undesirably  ramified.  Expensive  gird- 
ling or  cutting  of  seed-bearing  weed  trees,  belonging  to  a  worthless 
species. 

V.  The  running  expenses  for  protection  from  fire  and  for  taxes 
are,  to  a  degree,  independent  from  the  quality  of  the  young  growtli. 
They  are  relatively  high,  and  hence  absurdly  unbearable,  if  that 
growth  is  poor,  straggling  and  very  slow  to  develop,  all  of  which 
is  apt  to  be  the  case  in  this  type  of  seed  regeneration. 

Thirty  years  after  clearing,  the  average  age  of  the  young 
growth  is   not   apt   to   exceed   ten   years. 

VI.  Groups  of  advance  growth  are  almost  sure  to  be  destroyed 
or  to  be  crippled  by  logging  and  by  svulden  change  of  environments. 

Paragraph  XLIV.     The  cleared  strip  type. 

A.  The  width  of  the  cleared  strip  is  frcm  two  to  five  times 
the  length  of  the  mother  tree.  When  one  belt  is  seeded  suc- 
cessfully, another  strip  is  cut  into  the  timber  alongside  the  first 
belt,  and  so  on. 

Soil  work  is  not  required,  provided  the  strip  is  cleared  in  a 
seed  year.  Usually  the  soil  is  torn  up  sufficiently  by  the  removal 
of  a  large  number  of  logs  snaked  or  rolled  or  shot  along  the 
strip  and  over  the  strip  to  the  nearest  road. 

One  seed  year  is  rarely  enough  to  secure  full  regeneration  of  a 
strip.  In  the  Alps,  Pine  regeneration  takes  from  twelve  to  thirty 
years.  On  hardwood  soil,  the  weeds  are  to  be  dreaded,  preeminently 
so  on  fertile  ground  after  fires. 

It  is  wise  to  leave  a  few  wind-firm  mother  trees  scattered 
over  the  strip,  notably  immature  specimens  of  the  most  desirable 
species.  Less  desirable  species  on  the  nearby  border  might  be 
girdled  or  removed  by  extending  the  removal  of  that  species  into' 
the  bordering  forest.  In  addition,  valuable  hypermatiu-e  trees  might 
be   withdrawn  from  the  nearby  forest. 

The  cleared  strip  type  does  not  require  a  permanent  system  of 
transportation  of  great  intricacy,  the  strips  themselves  forming 
the  main  lines  of  transportation.  The  narrow  edge  of  the  strip 
merely  is  touched,  on  the  valley  side,  by  a  road.  According  to 
'the  grade  of  the  strip,  sleighs,  cables,  chutes,  donkey  engines,  etc., 
might  be  used  to  deliver  the  logs  to  the  road. 

102 


SYLVICULTURE 

At  the  beginning  of  operations,  tlie  first  strip  should  be  made 
in  sheltered  localities  so  as  to  allow  the  forest  adjoining  leewards 
to  remain  unharmed  by  storm. 

The  strips  proceed  windwards  gradually,  the  next  being  cleared 
when  regeneration   in   the   preceding   strip   is    fully   secured. 

The  danger  from  insects  and  fungi  is  small.  The  danger  from 
fire,  to  begin  with,  is  great,  although  not  as  great  as  in  large 
clearings  to  which  the  wind  and  sun  are  freely  admitted.  Later  on 
the   even-aged   character  of  the   strip   will  help   to   checK  fires. 

Nothing  prevents  the  owner  from  reinforcing  the  strip  artificially 
if  he  thinks  fit.  Healthy  groups  of  advance  growth,  formed  by 
desirable  species  in  the  belt  at  the  time  of  logging,  might  be 
carefully  husbanded.  Natural  regeneration  will  set  in  as  well  at 
the  side  of  the  belt  underneath  the  bordering  mother  trees.  "  Re- 
generation runs  into  the  old  woods."  This  is  a  very  desirable  state 
of  aflfairs  allowing,  in  the  next  belts,  regeneration  to  start  in 
advance  of  cutting.  (Bastardizing  the  cleared  strip  type  with  the 
advance  growth  strip  type.) 

B.  Actual  application:  This  type  of  regeneration  is  locally  used 
in  the  Tyrolian  and  Austrian  Alps,  for  Spruce,  Larch,  Pine.  The 
form  of  the  strips  need  not  be  rectangular.  It  depends  on  maturity 
of  growth,  configuration  of  soil,  danger  from  storm.  The  type 
seems  well  adapted  to  present  American  conditions,  requiring,  of 
course,  local  modifications  or  bastardations,  governed  by  species  and 
market.  Its  applicability,  however,  rests  on  the  existence  of  some 
permanent  chief  arteries  of  transportation. 

At  Biltmore,  the  type  is  applied,  in  modified  form,  for  the 
reproduction  of  Yellow  Poplar  and  Yellow  Pine. 

C.  Advantages  of  the  cleared  strip  type: 

I.  Applicability  to  many  species,  to  manj^  conditions  and  to 
many   localities. 

II.  Concentration  of  logging  operations  and  of  sylvicultural  help 
possible.     Cheap  logging  by  donkey  engines,  chutes,  snaking,  etc. 

III.  Many  points  of  attack,  at  which  the  season's  cut  might 
be  obtained,  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  forester,  if  he  so  desires. 
Hence   great   freedom   of   action. 

IV.  Comparative  safety  of  the  old  woods  from  storm ;  of  the 
j^oung   growth   from   fire,   drought,   frost,  insects,   etc. 

D.  Disadvantages  of  the  cleared  strip  type: 

I.  If  the   seeding  of  the  strip  is  not  effected  soon  after  clear- 
ing,   the    soil    is   baked   by    the    sun,    weeds    are     started    and     the 
ecological   conditions   are   aff"ected  in  a  manner  barring  the   success 
of  seed  regeneration  and  necessitating  artificial  help. 
10.'^ 


SYLVICULTURE 

II.  Border  trees  are  exposed  to  sun  scald. 

III.  Deer   frequent  the   strips   and   spoil   the   young  growth. 

IV.  The  soil  of  the  strip — especially  of  the  first  strip  in  a 
series — is  rarely  "  in  heat,"  certainly  not  over  the  entire  strip, 
so  that  the  seeds  falling  upon  it  have  a  poor  chance  of  success. 
This  is  the  case,  preeminently,  in  the  huniid  mountains  where  a 
heavy  layer  of  raw  humus  covers  the  ground.  A  large  number  of 
years  will  often  elapse,  before  the  next  adjoining  strip  can  be 
taken  in  hand. 

V.  The  strips  should  lie  cut  where  the  timber  is  most  mature 
at  the  time, — and  not  in  a  succession  merely  dependent  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  young  growth  and  on  the  necessity  of  proceeding 
against  the  prevailing  storm  direction. 

Paragraph  XLV.     The  cleared  group  type. 

A.  The  groups  cut  comprise  from  0.1  acre  to  three  acres.  •  The 
form  is  roundish,  oval,  square,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be,  usually 
coinciding  with  a  geological  feature,  f.  i.,  a  dell,  a  spur,  a  spring- 
head. 

The  incentive  for  group-cutting  lies  either  in  the  simultaneous 
maturity  of  the  trees  stocking  on  it,  or  in  the  desire  to  obtain 
conditions  particularly  favorable  to  the  reproduction  of  one  of  the 
species  appearing  in  the  old  timber;  or  the  group,  previously  stocked 
with  an  rmdesirable   species,  is  to  be   seeded  by  a  better  kind. 

B.  Actual  application:  This  type  has  never  played  an  important 
role  in  connection  with  natural  seed  regeneration.  Sylvicultiu-ally 
iL  seems  Avell  adapted  to  Yellow  Poplar,  Long  Leaf  Pine,  Lodge- 
pole  Pine,  \Miite  Pine,  also  to   Hickory  and  Oak. 

Where  the  groups  run  in  the  shape  of  long  tongues,  parallel 
at  regular  intervals,  they  are  termed  "  coulisses."  The  coulisses 
are  usually  meant  for  the  regeneration  of  more  light-demanding 
species;  the  "benches"  separating  the  coulisses  for  the  regenera- 
tion of  more  shade-bearing  species. 

In  Germany,  the  space  formerly  occupied  by  a  cleared  group 
is  termed  a  "  hole."  Where  the  groups,  after  reseeding,  are  gradu- 
ally enlarged,  the  cleared  group-type  is  bastardized  with  the  shel- 
terwood  group   type. 

C.  Advantages:  The  soil  of  the  group,  thanks  to  a  sufficient 
amount  of  side  shade,  retains  its  freshness  and  porosity.  It  is 
sheltered  from  severe  winds  and  severe  heat.  Species  too  sensitive 
for    reproduction    in    larger    clearings    or    strips    can    be    raised    in 

104 


SYLVICULTURE 

croups.     Where  the  age  classes  appear  in  bunches,  each  bunch  can 
be  harvested  at  its  proper  age  of  maturity.     No  harm  or  little  harm 
is    done    to    young   growth    during    the    logging    season. 
D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Operations  are  scattering. 

II.  Intricate  system  of  permanent  roads  reqviii-ed. 

III.  Groups  surrounded  by  tall  timber  frequently  act  as  "  frost- 
holes  "  where  young  growth  suffers  badly  from  early  frosts  and 
late  frosts  in  clear  nights. 

IV.  Thin  barked  trees  surrounding  the  group  suffer  from  sun 
scald;   flat-rooted  trees   suffer  from  storm. 

Paragraph  XLVI.    The  cleared  selection  type. 

A.  In  this  type,  individual  trees  considered  mature  are  selected 
for  removal,  either  absolutely  singly,  or  in  very  small  patches 
formed  by  neighboring  trees. 

The  clearings  made  are  so  small  that  only  shade-bearing  species 
will  regenerate   thereon,  unless  the  soil  be  particularly  strong. 

The  cut  is  so  scattering,  that  the  soil  is  not  sufficiently  "  plowed  " 
by  the  loggers.     Hence  it  will  not  act  as  a  ready  seed-bed. 

In  mixed  woods  composed  of  many  species,  only  the  most 
valuable  kind  is  usually  withdrawn,  and  the  small  gaps  made  are 
occupied  by  shade-bearing  and  often  less  valuable  species. 

Beneath  hypermature  trees,  the  soil  has  frequently  hardened 
and  defies  any  attempt  of  seedlings  to  establish  themselves  after 
logging. 

The  cleared  selection  type  is  almost  invariably  bastardized  with 
the  shelterwood  selection  type  and  with  the  advance  growth  selec- 
tion type. 

B.  Actual   application: 

In  the  tropics,  Teak,  Mahogany,  Ebony,  etc.,  are  cut  by  selec- 
tion, frequently  regardless  of  the  effect  which  logging  will  have 
on  regeneration. 

In  Europe,  the  type  is  found  in  the  Fir  forests  owned  by  farm- 
ers; in  parks;  in  protective  forests  at  the  headwaters  of  rivers; 
on  very  steep  slopes  dotted  with  Larch,  in  the  Tyrol. 

In  America,  Yellow  Poplar,  Walnut,  Cherry,  W^iite  Oak,  etc., 
are  cut  by  way  of  individual  selection, — but  with  no  regard  to 
reproduction.  Also  White  Pine  in  the  Spruce  and  Fir  woods  of  the 
Adirondacks  where  it  never  succeeds,  withdrawn  alone,  to  reproduce 
its  kind. 

105 


SYLVICULTURE 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  The  water-storing  power  of  the  soil  is  generally  well  pre- 
served under  this   type. 

II..  The  second  growth  is  never  endangered  by  snow  or  drought 
or  frost  or  sleet;  the  old  trees  remaining  do  not  suffer  from  storm 
or   sun    scald. 

III.  Small  wood  lots  may  yield  a  steady  annual  supply  of  timber 
or   wood   under   this   type. 

IV.  The   type   is   well  adapted   to   deer   parks. 

D.  Disadvantages : 

I.  The  operations  are  very  scattering.  Indeed,  they  cover  con- 
tinuously the  entire  forest  or  a  large  percentage  thereof.  Difli- 
culty  of  supervision. 

II.  An  intricate  system  of  permanent  roads  is  required,  since 
the  axe  returns  every  few  years  to  the  same  compartment.  If  the 
intervals  of  years  are  long — say  from  ten  to  twenty  years — the 
type  is  bastardized  with  the  cleared  group  type  or  with  the  shelter- 
wood  group  type. 

III.  The  type  as  a  means  of  regeneration,  in  its  purity,  is  pos- 
sible  only  where 

a.  The  compartments  contain  a  mixture  of  all  age  classes, 
with  the  hypeiTuature  classes  not  too  badly  prevailing; 

b.  The  species  to  be  regenerated  is  an  intense  shade-bearer; 

c.  The  soil  is  strong  enough  to  allow  light -demanding  seedlings 
a  chance  at  surviving  a  long  period  of  partial  suppression. 

IV.  The  species  removed — presumably  the  most  valuable  species 
— has  reduced  prospects  of  propagating  itself,  struggling  against 
competing  species,  the  number  of  its  seed  trees  being  relatively 
decreased. 

V.  Small  chance  for  reinforcing. 

VI.  Impossibility  of  protection  against  fires  imder  headway. 


Paragraph  XL VII.    Types  in  which  lumbering  coincides  with  N.  S.  R. 

In  tnese  types  of  natural  seed  regeneration — so-called  shelter- 
wood  types — lumbering  and  reseeding  go  hand  in  hand,  both  pro- 
gressing seriatim,  slowly,  cautiously.  In  the  pure  types,  no  tree  is 
removed,  imless  the  removal  has  a  distinct  bearing — or  is  expected 
to'  have  it — on  the  production  of  a  progeny  or  on-  its  further  develop- 
ment. Seedlings  less  than  five  years  old  usually  stand  within  a 
few  yards  of  their  mothers.  This  distance  is  gradually  increased — 
in  the  course  of  up  to  fifty  years — until  the  youngsters  do  not 
100 


SYLVICULTURE 

require  any  more,  or  rather  despise,  the  benefit  of  the  parents' 
presence. 

Lumbering  operations  are  carried  on — in  one  and  the  same 
limited   lot — during   a   number   of   years. 

Where  the  mother  trees  are  very  rapidly  removed,  after  re- 
seeding,  from  the  proximity  of  the  youngsters,  the  pure  shelter- 
wood  types  approach  the  types  of  cleared  compartments,  cleared 
strips,  etc. 

Where  the  mother  trees  are  very  slowly  removed,  after  reseed- 
ing,  from  the  proximity  of  the  youngsters,  the  pure  shelterwood 
types   approach,   or   bastardize   with,   the   advance   growth   types. 

The  chances  for  success  depend  on: 

A.  Sylvicultural  talents  of  the  forester  in  charge  and  of  his  staff, 
also  on  the  size  of  the  ranges. 

B.  Frequency  of  seed  years  and  time  allowed  for  tlie  entire 
operations. 

C.  Shade-bearing  character  of  youngsters  and  firmness  of 
parents. 

D.  Existence  of  a  permanent  system  of  transportation. 

E.  Configuration. 

F.  Danger  from  storm,  sleet,  fire,  animals,  etc.,  locally  existing. 

G.  Size  of  timber,  value  of  timber,  percentage  of  debris  and 
waste. 

H.  Marketability  of  all  species  or  of  a  few,  even  of  one  species 
only. 

According  to  the  manner  in  which  the  forester  selects  the  nuclei 
for  reseeding,  we  distinguish  the  following  types: 

I.  Uniform  type,  or  pure  shelterwood  compartment  type,  where 
the  nuclei  are  geometrically  and  regularly  distributed  over  the  en- 
tirety of  a  large  area  (say  over  twenty  to  two  hundred  acres),  the 
nuclei  of  the  entire  area  being  kept,  during  the  entire  progress  of 
regeneration,  in  or  about  in  the,  same  uniform  stage  of  development. 

II.  Shelterwood  strip  tj'pe,  where  the  nuclei  proceed,  like  ad- 
vancing skirmishers,  in  regular  military  order  from  the  leeward 
side  to  the  windward  side  of  a  compartment  (cove,  slope,  etc.).  The 
nuclei  to  the  leeward  are  kept  in  a  more  advanced  stage  of  growth 
than  those  to  the  windward. 

III.  Shelterwood  group  type,  where  the  nuclei  are  carefully 
selected,  irrespective  of  geometrical  arrangements,  merely  on  the 
basis  of  the  fitness  of  the  individual  spot  to  act  as  a  seed-bed.  The 
groups  are  gradually  enlarged,  increasing  in  circumference  like  waves 
caused  by   stones   thrown   in  the   water. 

107 


SYLVICULTURE 

.  IV.  Shelterwood  selection  type,  where  the  most  mature  indi- 
viduals are  everywhere  and  continuously  selected  for  removal,  indi- 
vidually or  in  small  patches,  with  a  view  to  simultaneous  repro- 
duction of  the  species  removed  by  seeds  left  on  such  patches.  The 
patch  does  not  form  a  nucleus  to  be  enlarged;  it  is  to  be  retained 
for  a  long  time  in  its  original  size. 

Paragraph  XLVIII.     The  shelterwood  compartment  type  of  natural 
seed  regeneration. 

A.  This  type  is  characterized  by  tlie  uniform  manner,  in  wliieli 
lumbering  and  regeneration  proceed   over   large   areas. 

This  uniformity  is  possible  only  in  somewhat  even-aged  tracts. 
Great  difficulties  are  experienced  in  mixed  forests,  owing  to  the 
difference  of   light  requirements. 

The  fixed  conditions  inviting  the  forester  to  adopt  this  type 
ore  of  a  rather  rare  character,  almost  absent  from  primeval  woods. 
The  educational  value  of  this  type,  however,  is  unparalleled. 

B.  Actual  application:  Shade  bearers  are  better  adapted  to  this 
type  than  light  demanders.  Beech  is  usually  treated  under  this 
type;  Maple  and  Ash  frequently  so;  Oak  largely  in  France,  rarely 
in  Germany;  Fir  and  Spruce  in  parts  of  the  Black  Forest;  Pine  in 
the   old  country  only  rarely  owing  to  its  demands   on  light. 

This  "  military  "  type  wa§  created  by  George  L.  Ilartig,  toward 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  considered  the  ideal 
type  of  regeneration  up  to  about  1875.  It  is  now  far  from  being 
abandoned,  maintaining  its  role  as  the  most  commonly  used  type 
of  seed  regeneration,  although  usually  bastardized,  in  modern  times, 
with  the  strip  and  the  group  type. 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  Thorough  protection  of  the  soil,  of  its  productive  capacity 
and  its  porosity. 

II.  Small  risk  of  utter  failure. 

III.  Large  tracts  taken  in  hand  at  one  and  the  same  time. 

IV.  Methodical,  military  manner  of  proceeding  which  facili- 
tates instruction  of  the  staff  of  rangers  and  proper  execution  of 
orders  by  the  staff. 

V.  Mother  trees,  standing  above  the  young  growth  in  isolated 
position,  yield  an  extra-increment  of  high  value  ("light  increment"). 

VI.  Young  growth  is  well  protected  against  climatic  adversities. 

D.  Disadvantages : 

I.  Difficulty  of  obtaining  a  desired  mixture  of  species  in  the 
young  growth. 

108 


SYLVICULTURE 

II.  Necessity  for  tlie  entire  number  of  old  trees  to  reach 
maturity  at  or  about  at  the  same  time. 

III.  Even- aged  forests  are  formed  by  tliis  type  which  are 
badly  endangered  by  insects,  fungi,  storm,  snow,  etc. 

IV.  The  young  growth  is  badly  damaged  during  the  latter 
stages  of  logging  operations,  especially  where  heavy  logs  (not 
wood)  are  obtained  and  wliere  the  road  system  is  deficient;  further 
on  steep   slopes. 

E.  The  uniform  system,  being  particularly  instructive,  deserves 
a  most  detailed  consideration. 

To  the  mother  trees  is  allotted  a  three-fold  task,  viz.: 

To  seed  the  "  regeneration  area." 

To  protect  the  young  growth  from  atmospheric  hardships  and 
weeds. 

To  prevent  deterioration  of  the  soil  during  the  early  stages 
of  the  second  growth. 

Three  distinct  stages  of  regeneration  must  be  distinguished,  viz.: 

I.  The  "  pi'eparatory  stage,"  initiated  by  a  preparatory  cutting. 

II.  The   "  seeding  stage,"  initiated  by  a  seeding  cutting. 

III.  xhe  "final  stage,"  during  which  the  final  fellings  take 
place. 

I.  The  preparatory  stage: 

a.  Purpose:    The  preparatory   cutting  intends: 

1.  To  prepare  the  soil  underneath*  the  mother  trees  for  a  seed- 
bed, by  increasing  the  rate  of  disintegration  of  vegetable  matter. 
The  soil  is  best  prepared  at  a  time  when  no  weeds,  but  a  few 
shooLS  of  sweet  grasses  appear  here  and  there.  The  humus  decom- 
poses at  the  quickest  rate  on  limestone;  at  the  slowest  rate  on 
sand  and  sandstone. 

2.  i'o  prepare  the  mother  trees  for  regeneration  bj'  allowing 
them  a  larger  crown  space,  thus  inviting  the  development  of  seed 
buds;  further  by  increasing  their  stability,  so  that  they  may  resist 
the   storms   when   placed   in   a   more   isolated   position; 

3.  To  remove  undesirable  species,  thus  preventing  them  from 
propagating  their  kind. 

4.  To  reduce  the  volume  of  the  growing  stock  so  as  to  facili- 
tate the  maintenance  of  a  normal  growing  stock  and  so  as  to 
have  less  matei'ial  to  remove  when  the  young  growth  appears 
on  the  regeneration  area. 

b.  Duration:  The  duration  of  the  preparatory  stage  depends 
upon  the  species  and  the  soil.  Shade-bearing  species  found  in  dense 
stands  need  a  longer  period  of  preparation  than  the  light-demanding 

109 


SYLVICULTURE 

species.     On   soil  rich  with  lime   and   in  the   lowlands,   the  prepara- 
tory stage  is  much  shorter  than  on  sandstone  and  in  the  highlands. 

c.  Area:  The  area  (in  per  cent,  of  the  entire  forest  area)  to  be 
prepared  depends  uj^on  the  necessities  of  the  market  and  of  the 
mill  (equal  annual  yield),  on  the  prospects  of  a  seed  year,  on  the 
frequency  of  seed  years,  and  on  the  urgency  of  other  fellings. 

d.  Trees:  The  preparatory  cutting  should  remove  all  sickly 
trees  and  all  undesirable  species.  Further,  those  which  have  the 
crowns  low  down  to  the  ground,  which  will  shade  the  young  growth 
later  on  and  which  now  lessen  the  rate  of  disintegration  of  vege- 
table matter.  No  dominant  trees  should  be  taken  out.  Near  the 
edge  of  the  compartment  it  is  wise  to  keep  the  leaf  canopy  as  close 
as  possible,  so  as  to  prevent  the  influence  of  drying  winds. 

e.  Marking:  The  forester  himself  should  mark  every  tree  to  be 
taken  out  during  the  preparatory  stage.  When  the  wood  cutters 
are  not  reliable,  it  is  necessary  to  mark  the  stinnps  of  the  trees 
as  well. 

f.  Lumbering:  Where  it  pays  to  dig  out  the  tree  by  the  roots, 
it  is  well  to  do  so,  because  a  better  seed-bed  is  the  result.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  only  trees  marked  are  felled,  and  that  those 
left  are  not  damaged.  There  is  no  need  to  move  the  firewood  and 
timber  out  to  the  roads,  if  the  regeneration  area  otherwise  allows 
of  snaking,  wagoning,  etc. 

g.  Pasture:  Cattle  should  not  be  admitted  any  more  for  pas- 
turage during  the  preparatory  stage.  Pannage  of  hogs  will  be  of 
good  advantage.  Mice  and  insects  are  eaten  by  them.  Hogs  break 
up  the  net  work  of  roots,  leaves  and  moss  forming  the  soil  cover 
and  hindering  germinating  seeds  from  catching  root. 

II.  The  seeding  stage. 

a.  Time:   The  best  time  for  "seeding  cutting"  is  a  seed  year. 

The  forester  should  be  able  to  tell  from  the  looks  of  the  buds 
whether  a  seed  year  is  at  hand.  The  frequency  of  seea  years  de- 
pends on  the  species  and  on  the  locality. 

If  there  is  no  prospect  for  seeds,  the  seeding  cutting  should 
be  postponed,  and  if  a  sustained  yield  is  desired,  it  should  be  made 
up  by  preparatory  cuttings,  final  cuttings  and  thinnings. 

b.  The  area  over  which  the  seeding  cutting  should  extend  depends 
on  the  area  prepared  for  regeneration,  on  the  length  of  the  period 
of  regeneration,  on  the  periodical  occurrence  of  seed  years,  on  the 
requirements  for  a  sustained  yield  and  on  the  available  market. 

The  scarcer  the  seed  years,  the  larger  is  the  area  placed  in  the 
seeding  stage  when  a  mast  year  arrives. 
110 


SYLVICULTURE 

The  longer  the  period  during  which  the  seedlings  require  shelter, 
the  larger  is  the  area  to  be  taken  in  hand  at  a  seeding  cutting. 

c.  Trees:  It  is  wise  to  take  the  biggest  trees  first,  as  their  re- 
moval at  a  later  date  will  result  in  great  damage  to  the  young 
growth. 

If  the  forester  is  sure  to  be  able  to  remove  some  more  trees 
after  the  lapse  of  one  or  two  years,  a  light  seeding  cutting  is  usually 
best. 

During  the  first  two  years  of  their  lives  the  young  seedlings 
stand  a  great  deal  of  shade,  even  those  of  light-demanding  species, 
on  fair  soil. 

The  degree  of  light  which  should  fall  on  the  ground  after  a 
seeding  cutting,  depends  on  species,  height  of  trees,  form  of  trees 
and  locality. 

In  the  case  of  tender  and  slow-growing  species,  the  cover  should 
be  close.  In  the  case  of  tall  trees,  slight  interruptions  of  the  leaf 
canopy  is  sufficient. 

On  good  soil,  where  weeds  are  to  be  dreaded,  the  cover  should 
be  denser  tnan  under  the  reversed  conditions.  On  a  southern  ex- 
posure, the  cover  should  be  dense.  Fir,  Beech  and  Spruce  require 
a  close  stand  of  the  mother  trees  on  strong  soil  and  at  high  elevations. 

Oak  and  Pine  on  alluvial  sand  of  average  quality  should  be 
tapped  heavily. 

d.  The  proportion  of  trees  lef t  and  trees  cut  might  be  gauged  by : 

1.  The  distance  or  space  between  the  crowns.  It  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  give  any  data  as  to  the  best  distance  of  the  crowns.  The 
form  of  the  crowns  is  so  irregular  that  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain 
the  best  average  distance. 

2.  The  number  of  stems  which  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  cover 
overhead  where  yield  tables  are  at  hand,  if  the  age  and  the  locality 
are  known. 

3.  The  sectional  area  of  the  stems  cut  and  of  the  stems  re- 
maining. 

4.  The  volume  cut  and  the  volume  remaining. 

e.  Preiparation  of  soil:  Shade-bearing  species  maintaining  the 
porosity  of  the  soil  better  than  light-demanding  species  often  allow 
the  forester  to  get  along  without  any  preparation  of  the  soil.  Under 
light-demanding  species,  on  the  other  hand,  the  hardening  of  the 
soil  at  the  time  of  seed  cutting  often  necessitates  the  preparation  of 
fhe  ground  so  that  it  may  serve  as  a  seed-bed.  This  preparation 
may  consist  of: 

1.  Removal  of  leaves,  weeds  or  moss. 

Ill 


SYLVICULTURE 

2.  Working  the  ground  by  pasturing  hogs. 

3.  Wounding  the  soil  in  open  spaces,  Avith  a  hoe. 

4.  Breaking  the  soil  with  a  strong  plow. 

f.  Lumbering.  All  cutting  should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  seeds  have  dropped  so  as  to  bring  them  into  contact  with  the 
ground  at  once.  The  wood  or  timber  cut  should  be  dragged  to  the 
roads  previous  to  the  germination  ot  the  seeds.  The  heavier  the 
seed  cutting  is,  the  larger  will  be  the  percentage  of  seeds  finding 
germination.  Most  of  the  seeds  are  imbedded  by  the  steps  of  the 
woodsmen. 

Advance  growth  should  be  removed  wherever  it  appears  singly. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  remaining  mother  trees  are  not  damaged 
by  lumbering. 

g.  Covering  the  seeds:  The  covering  of  the  seeds  is  invariably 
left  to  nature  or  to  hazard.  It  might  be  advisable,  however,  to  se- 
cure a  covering  artificially  with  the  help  of  a  rake,  or  by  plowing, 
after  the  seeds  have  dropped,  or  by  pressing  heavy  seeds  (nuts, 
acorns)   into  the  ground  with  a  blunt  stick. 

h.  Fire:  After  the  seeds  have  dropped,  the  utmost  care  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  fire  from  running  through  the  forest.  A  fire 
previous  to  the  droj^ping  of  the  seed  may  be  advantageous,  especially 
in  the  case  of  Yellow  Pines.  After  the  seeding,  however,  it  should 
be  prevented. 

III.  The  Final  stage. 
The  removal  of  the  seed  trees  left  takes  place  during  the  final  stage. 

a.  Purpose:  sij  the  gradual  removal  of  the  mother  trees,  the 
young  forest  is  gradually  lead  into  a  life  imder  changed  conditions, 
until  it  is  ready  to  enjoy  the  full  influence  of  sunshine,  air  and  rain. 

b.  Number  of  cuttings:  The  more  gradual  the  removal,  tiie 
less  damage  results  for  the  young  growth  from  the  logging  opera- 
tions  and   from   changed   environments.     On   the   other   hand,   it   is 

cheapest  and  best,  from  the  logger's  standpoint,  to  remove  the  seed 
trees  at  one  stroke. 

c.  Beginning:  The  beginning  of  the  final  fellings  depends  on  the 
development  of  the  young  growth.  In  the  case  of  poor  soH,  or  light 
demanding  species  and  of  northern  climate,  fellings  should  start  in 
the  fall  following  the  seeumg. 

In  the  case  of  shade-bearing  species,  strong  soil  and  southern 
climate  the  second  or  third  fall  should  be  waited  for.  The  drier 
the  locality,  the  quicker  must  be  the  removal  of  the  mother  trees. 

d.  Duration:  The  duration  of  the  final  stage  depends  on  species, 
on  quality  of  soil,  on  success  of  seeding  cutting,  on  occurrence  of 

112 


SYLVICULTURE 

subsequent  seed  years  and  on  climate.     A  tender,  slow-growing  and 
shade-bearing  species  allows  of  a  protracted  period  of  removal. 

A  few  trees  left  in  isolated  positions  are  apt  to  damage  the 
young  growth  by  the  reflection  of  the  sun's  rays  from  the  bark; 
this  is  the  case  especially  in  species  having  a  whitish  bark  (Beech, 
Maple,  Birch,  Silver  Fir). 

e.  Marking  for  final  removal:  Broad-leaved  trees  should  be 
marked  in  summer  whilst  the  trees  and  the  young  growth  are  in 
leaf. 

By  the  first  final  felling  onlj-  small  trees  shall  be  removed,  after 
Hess.  From  the  second  fall  (after  the  seed  cutting)  on,  the  seedlings 
being  stronger  at  that  time,  it  is  wise  to  take  the  largest  trees. 

f.  Season:  The  cutting  of  the  mother  trees  should  take  place 
when  snow  covers  the  ground,  so  as  to  do  the  least  possible  damage 
to  the  young  growth.  Fellings  must  be  discontinued  during  hard 
frost.  Bi'oad-leafed  species  should  not  be  cut  before  leaves  are 
dropped  as  thej^  will  do  more  damage  to  their  progeny  when  felled 
in  leaf. 

Hess  is  in  favor  of  cutting  in  fall,  claiming  that  tbe  young 
growtn  at  that  time  is  particularly  tough  and  elastic.  He  does 
not  attribute  much  weight  to  the  presence  of  snow  unless  it  covers 
the  young  growth  entirely. 

g.  Stumps  and  roots:  If  the  trees  are  dug  out  by  the  roots, 
the  force  with  which  they  hit  the  ground  is  considerably  lessened. 

In  coniferous  forests,  many  parasistic  insects  breed  in  stumps, 
and  in  that  case  it  may  be  necessary  to  dig  them  out  of  the  ground, 
or  to  poison  them. 

Where  the  tree  is  entirelj'  surrounded  by  young  groAvth,  digging 
should  be  prohibited. 

h.  How  to  fell  a  tree:  The  ti'ee  to  be  cut  should  be  tlirowiT  onto 
that  place  where  it  is  likely  to  do  the  least  damage — especially  onto 
"  blanks."  It  is  wise  to  throw  the  crowns  of  several  trees  onto  the 
same  spot  so'  as  to  centralize  the  damage.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
sylviculturists  prefer  to  throw  the  crowns  of  the  trees  into  the  very 
thickest  young  growth,  claiming  that  the  damage  thereby  done  is 
considerably  less,  and  that  many  youngsters  will  be  left  undamaged. 

i.  Standards:  In  many  cases,  a  few  trees  are  left  standing  for 
a  second  rota/tion.  Such  trees  are  called  "  standards."  Standards 
of  Oak,  Pine  and  Ash  are  frequently  found.  They  should  not  ^be 
left  unless  ihey  stand  ciose  to  a  road,  or  tmless  they  are  certain  to 
outlast  a  second  rotation. 


113 


SYLVICULTURE 

j.  Pruning  of  mother  trees:  Low  branches  which  overshadow 
the  young  growth  heavily  shoukl  be  cut. 

k.  Transportation  of  wood:  All  wood  and  timber  should  be 
moved  to  the  nearest  roads  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  trees  are 
cut.  Speedy  removal  is  especially  necessary  in  coniferous  forests, 
the  young  groAvth  having  little  reproductive  power.  A  snow  cover 
might  be  used  to  remove  the  wood  on  sleds;  high-wheeled  trucks 
will  answer  splendidly  on  level  ground.  The  method  of  "roping" 
used  in  the  Black  Forest  also  saves  the  young  growth.  All  wood 
and  timber  must  be  removed  from  the  regeneration  area  previous 
to  the  opening  of  the  buds. 

1.  Pasturage:  There  is  no  need  to  say  that  the  young  growth 
should  be  protected  against  pasture. 

m.  Reinforcing:  Blanks  should  be  filled  only  when  the  mother 
trees  have  been  entirely  removed.  The  plants  may  be  taken  from 
dense  places  where  the  natural  regeneration  is  complete  or,  better, 
from  nurseries. 

Paragraph  XLIX.  The  shelterwood  strip  type  of  natural  seed  regen- 
eration. 

A.  This  type  bears  the  same  ratio  to  the  shelterwood  com- 
partment type  of  regeneration  which  tlie  cleared  strip  type  bears 
to  the  cleared  compartment  type. 

Li  the  shelterwood  strip  type,  as  in  the  cleared  strip  type,  fell- 
ings and  regeneration  begin  at  the  leeward  side  of  a  compartment 
(cove,  slope)  and  proceed  gradually  against  the  direction  of  the 
prevailing  storms. 

Heavy-seeaed  species  as  well  as  light-seeded  species  allow  of 
the  strip  type.  Distinct  light  demanders,  however,  defy  it  on  the 
poorer  grades  of  soil. 

The  nuclei  are  laid  out  geometrically  in  the  shape  of  strips  cross- 
ing the  prevailing  wind-direction  at  right  angles.  The  most  leeward 
strip  is  in  the  final  stage;  the  most  windward  strip  is  in  the  pre- 
paratory stage;  the  middle  strip  is  in  the  seeding  stage,  provided 
that  the  conditions  are  normal. 

The  breadth  of  a  strip  depends  on  species,  frequency  of  seed 
years,  configuration  of  ground  and  so  on.  At  a  breadth  of  over 
500  feet,  the  strip  type  bastardizes  with  the  compartment  type. 

More  frequently,  the  shelterwood  strip  type  is  bastardized  with 
the  rhelterwoou  group  type. 

Regeneration  of  a  cove,  slope,  tract,  etc.,  under  the  pure  strip 
type,  is   exceedingly   slow,   unless   there   are   at   hand   a   number  of 

114 


SYLVICULTURE 

"  series  of  strips,"  all  triplets,  consisting  of  a  preparatory,  a  seeding 
and  a  final  strip. 

liie  first  strips  are  usually  made,  as  in  the  cleared  strip  type, 
in  well-sheltered  ravines  or  gullies;  or  at  the  windward  edge  of 
lakes,  fields,  young  growth;  or  at  the  windward  edge  of  storm-firm 
trees  (Oaks),  where  there  is  a  mixture  of  storm-firm  species  with 
species  enuangered  by  storm. 

The  form  of  the 'strips  need  not  be  exactly  rectangular.  In  the 
mountains,  the  strips  usually  run  up  and  down  the  slopes — not  hori- 
zontal— so  as  to  facilitate  the  transportation  of  timber  and  wood 
removed  from  the  strip. 

B.  Actual  application :  This  type  is  frequently  seen  in  the  coni- 
ferous woods  of  the  Eureopean  moderately  cold  zone;  also  in  Beech 
woods  and  Oaic  woods. 

Like  the  uniform  type,  the  strip  type  is  not  exactly  natural. 
For  that  reason,  the  primeval  woods  do  not  exhibit  any  illustra- 
tions of  the  strip  type. 

C.  Advantages:  The  advantages  of  the  shelterwood  strip  type 
are  identical  with  those  of  the  shelterwood  compartment  type — ex- 
cepting advantage  III.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  small  pieces  of 
property,  which  could  not  yield  steady  returns  under  the  imitorni 
type.  Greater  security  from  storm  is  characteristic  for  the  strip 
type. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Difficulty  of  obtaining  a  desired  mixture  of  species  in  the 
young  growth. 

II.  Trees  at  the  extreme  windward  edge  of  a  cutting  series 
obtain  an  extravagantly  high  age,  whilst  regeneration  proceeds 
slowly  and  gradually  against  them. 

III.  Tardiness  of  a  complete  regeneration  of  a  whole  compart- 
ment, slope  or  cove,  where  there  are  only  a  few  points  of  first  attack. 

IV.  Operations  are  more  scattering  than  in  the  shelterwood 
compartment  type. 

Paragraph  L.  The  shelterwood  group  type  of  natural  seed  regenera- 
tion. 

A.  Characteristic  features. 

I.  Species:  All  species  can  be  dealt  with  in  a  group  system; 
those  endangered  by  windfall,  however,  require  a  modification  of 
the  system,  or  small  rotation,  or  a  regular  progress  of  the  groups 
toward  the  storm  danger. 

115 


SYLVICULTURE 

II.  Beginning:  In  the  sheltervvood  system,  the  nuclei  for  groups 
are  formed  at  a  time,  at  which  the  soil  begins  to  be,  here  and  there, 
a  ready  recipient  for  seed.  In  the  nucleus,  two  or  three  trees  are 
cut,  to  begin  with,  and  a  few  seedlings  soon  enter  an  appearance. 

III.  Continuation:  The  young  growth  gradually  spreads  out, 
more  or  less  peripherically,  from  the  nucleus,  appearing  at  the  feet 
of  the  nearest  trees.  These  trees,  in  turn,  are  gradually  removed, 
whilst  the  groups  of  seedlings  continue  to  enlarge.  Finally  one 
group  will  How  into  the  other,  and  the  regeneration  will  present 
a  waving  leaf  canopy.  The  irregularity  of  the  canopy  depends  on 
the  rapidity  with  wdiich  the  groups  could  be  enlarged. 

IV.  Means  of  transportation:  The  type  obviously  requires  a 
finely  meshed,  permanent  network  of  transportation.  The  axe  re- 
turns to  the  gronp  under  formation  periodically,  say  every  three  to 
ten  years,  during  a  period  of  regeneration  comprising  from  fifteen  to 
fifty  years. 

V.  Soil  protection :  The  soil  is  continuously  protected  from  in- 
tensive insolation,  and  is  hence  kept  in  continuous  productiveness 
and  water-storing  capacity. 

VI.  Dangers:  Protection  from  fire  is  very  difficult;  protection 
from  storm  difficult,  although  easier  than  in  the  shelterwood  com- 
partment type,  insects,  fungi,  and  snowbreak  are  not  to  be  dreaded 
much  more  than  under  the  selection  system. 

VII.  Lumbering:  Mother  trees  are  always  felled  in  a  manner 
forcing  them  away  from  the  group.  Hypermature  trees  close  to 
the  group  are  extracted  at  the  same  time.  Lumbering  operations 
are  necessarily  scattered.  Hence  the  logging  expenses  and  the  cost 
of  supervision  range  very  high.  The  removal  (snaking)  of  the  trees 
cut  takes  place  through  the  benches  of  trees  left  between  the  groups 
so  that  the  soil  is  stirred  up  continuously  within  the  benches. 

The  groups  should  be  started,  if  possible,  at  the  vipper  end  of  a 
slope  so  that  the  logs  need  not  be  snaked  through  young  growth. 

VIII.  Artificial  help:  To  start  regeneration  of  a  nucleus,  and 
to  accelerate  the  enlargement  of  a  group,  mosses,  weeds  and  litter 
on  the  ground  may  be  removed  previous  to  a  seed  year  (bastardiz- 
ing with  advance  growth  group  type). 

The  so-called  "  hair-dressing "  of  groups,  by  which  misshapen 
and  branchy  growth  is  cut  back,  and  the  wave-form  of  groups  is 
maintained,  may  be  seen  in  the  Black  Forest. 

B.  Actual  application:  The  shelterwood  group  type  appears  to 
be  a  type  of  regeneration  sometimes  adopted  by  primeval  nature 
in  Beech,  Maple,  Fir  and  Pine  woods. 

116 


SYLVICULTURE 

As  a  sylvicviltural  type,  the  shelterwood  group  system  has  been 
fathered  by  Charles  Gayer. 

It  is  the  most  modern  type  of  German  n.  s.  r.,  applied  especially 
in  the  natural  seed  regeneration  of  Spruce  and  Beech. 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  The  type  grants  the  forester  the  utmost  liberty  of  action, 
by  offering  him  a  large  number  of  points  at  which  to  start  and  at 
which   to   continue   his   logging  operations. 

II.  In  mixed  forests,  the  system  allows  of  fostering  the  most 
valuable  species  and  of  cheeking  the  less  desirable  species  or  the 
weed  species. 

III.  The  type  does  not  take  any  sylvicultural  chances. 

IV.  The  yotmg  growth  is  well  protected  against  the  usual  atmos- 
pheric dangers. 

V.  The  good  qualities  of  the  soil  are  carefully  husbanded. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  The  type  makes  unusual  demands  on  the  personal  and  local 
attention  of  the  manager  as  well  as  of  the  staff,  necessitating  small 
ranges  and  high  administrative  expenses. 

II.  Mother  trees  at  the  leeward  side  of  an  enlarged  group  are 
subject  to  dangers  from  storm;  on  the  northeast  side  of  a  group 
subject  to  dangers   from  sun  scald. 

III.  A  large  outlay  is  incurred  for  logging  the  trees  owing  to 
the  scattering  character  of  the  operations  and  owing  to  the  care 
required  in  felling  and  transportation,  for  the  benefit  of  both  young 
and  old  growth. 

IV.  In  the  case  of  very  large  trees,  covering  by  their  crowns 
as  much  as  500  to  1,000  square  feet,  the  removal  of  an  individual 
tears  too  big  a  hole  into  the  forest  and  enlarges  the  group  too 
rapidly  at  a  stroke. 

V.  The  type  does  not  allow  of  the  removal  of  hypermature  trees 
with  proper  expedition.  They  are  removed  only  when  the  waves  of 
the  group  begin  to  touch  their  feet. 

VI.  The  soil  in  the  i^roximity  of  white  barked  trees  bordering 
a  group  is  scorched  by  reflected  sun  rays. 

Paragraph  LI.    The  shelterwood  selection  type  of  natural  seed  regen- 
eration. 

This  type  scarcely  exists  in  a  pure  form.  Where  it  exists,  it 
is  invariably  bastardized  with  the  cleared  selection  or  the  advance 
growth  selection  type  of  natural  seed  regeneration. 

The  pure  type  would  imply  the  immediate  development  (or 
rather  the  simultaneous  development)  of  a  seeding  growth  in  the  very 
117 


SYLVICULTURE 

year  (a  seed  year)  in  which  the  individual  trees — verj'  irregularly, 
very  scattei'ingly,  on  the  basis  of  their  relative  maturity — are  selected 
for  removal. 

Where  the  removal  leaves  a  blank,  we  meet  the  cleared  selection 
type. 

Where  tlie  removal  allows  an  advance  growth  already  at  hand 
to  fill  the  gap,  there  we  meet  the  advance  growth  selection  type. 

The  premises  for  the  shelterwood  selection  type  are  identical 
with  those  for  the  cleared  selection  tj'pe  and  for  the  advance  growth 
selection  type. 

Paragraph  LII.  Types  in  which  lumbering  follows  after  n.  s.  r. 

In  these  types  of  natural  seed  regeneration — so-called  advance 
growth  types — no  tree  is  removed  unless  its  foot  be  already  -sur- 
rounded by  a  young  progeny  of  desirable  character  which  has  pre- 
viously developed  beneath  the  parent's  or  step-parent's  leaf  canopy. 

The  case  of  exceedingly  fertile  soil  and  the  case  of  step-parents 
having  a  light  leaf  canopy  excepted,  absolute  shade  bearers  only  can 
be  propagated  by  this  type.  So  f.  i..  Hemlock,  Fir,  Beech,  Maple, 
Lawson's  Cypress,  Western  Red  Cedar. 

In  the  Lake  States,  White  Pine  is  found  as  a  regeneration 
formed  in  advance  beneath  mature  Norway  Pines  acting  as  step- 
parents  (advance  growth  group  type). 

In  the  Adirondaeks,  Spruce  regenerates  similarly  underneath 
mature  Cottonwoods  acting  as  step-parents  or,  on  very  fertile  soil, 
selectionwise  beneath  Beech,  Maple  and  Birch. 

Striking  it  is  that  species  not  absolutely  shade  enduring  are, 
in  many  a  case,  loth  to  be  regenerated,  as  an  advance  growth,  at 
the  feet  of  their  actual  parents,  whilst  willing  to  be  suppressed  be- 
neath step-parents  of  apparently  similar  density  of  foilage  (Yellow 
Poplar  at  Biltmore  underneath  Oak  or  Short-leaf  Pine;  Spruce 
underneath  Cottonwoods). 

Species  regenerating  under  their  own  kin  resemble  altricial  (nidi- 
cole)  birds;  species  avoiding  parental  superstructure  might  be  likened 
to  precocial   (nidifugal)   birds. 

The  chances  for  successful  regeneration  in  tliose  types  seem  ex- 
cellent.    Still,  the  following  points  must  not  be  lost  sight  of: 

I.  Advance  growth  badly  suppressed  for  a  long  time  is  fre- 
quently so  badly  crippled  that  it  fails  to  recover  within  a  reasonable 
number  of  years. 

II.  The  advance  growth  is  badly  smaslied  by  and  during  the  fell- 
ing operations,  unless  the  mother  trees  are  pruned  and  lopped  before 

118 


SYLVICULTURE 

felling,  and  unless  the  timber  obtained  is  carried  out  either  by  hand, 
or  on  high  wheel  trucks,  or  on  a  heavy  cover  of  snow  protecting 
the  advance  growth.  Under  any  circumstances,  fellings  during  the 
perioa  of  vegetation  must  be  avoided. 

III.  Advance  growth  suddenly  exposed  to  the  full  influence  of 
sun,  rain,  snow,  sleet,  etc.,  is  apt  to  suffer  in  case  of  sensitive  species. 

IV.  A  minute  system  of  permanent  roads  is  required,  the  ad- 
vance growth  usually  appearing  in  groups  or  patches. 

V.  If  the  pure  types  of  advance  growth  n.  s.  r.  were  strictly 
adhered  to,  a  regulation  of  the  annual  cut  according  to  the  conditions 
of  the  market  would  be  difficult  to  obtain.  Hypermature  trees 
would  have  to  be  left  everywhere — merely  because  young  growth 
if  often  slow  to  form  on  their  feet. 

In  such  cases,  artificial  preparation  of  a  seed-bed  (f.  i.,  by  un- 
covering the  mineral  soil)  seems  absolutely  required,  so  as  to  ex- 
pedite the  formation  of  advance  growth. 

If  the  leaf  canopy  overhead  is  opened  at  the  same  time  by  fell- 
ing ■operations,  the  types  bastardize  with  the  shelterwood  types  of 
n.  s.  r. 

According  to  the  extent  of  the  area  covered  by  an  advance 
growth  of  suitable  cliaracter  we  distinguish  between: 

a.  Advance  growth  compartment  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  the  areas  uni- 
formly covered  by  advance  growth  measuring  from  twenty  to  one 
hundred  acres  (rare). 

b.  Advance  growth  strip  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  the  areas  uniformly 
covered  by  advance  growth  appearing  as  strips  measuring  up  to 
500  feet  in  breaath   (very  rare).- 

c.  Advance  growth  group  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  the  groups  covered  by 
advance  growth  having  an  extent  of  from  one-tenth  to  three  acres 
(frequent). 

d.  Advance  growth  selection  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  the  young  seedlings 
and  saplings  appearing  in  scattered  and  small  patches  (very  com- 
mon). 

Under  "advance  growth"  is  understood  an  aggregate  (small  or 
large)  of  seedlings  or  saplings  belonging  to  a  desirable  species  and 
formed  without  any  human  intention  or  attention,  solely  by  nature, 
beneath  a  totally  or  partially  untouched  leaf  canopy  overhead. 

Spreading  advance  growth  appearing  in  bunches  or  groups  can 
be  doctored  up  with  axe  and  brushhook  and  machetes,  by  an  appli- 
cation of  "  hairdressing." 

Where  the  advance  growth  is  not  freed,  by  one  single  operation, 
from  the  superstructure  of  parents  and  step-parents  overhead,  the 
119 


SYLVICULTURE 

advance    growth    types    are    further    bastardized    with    shelterwood 
types. 


Paragraph  LIII.  The  advance  growth  compartment  type  of  natural 
seed  regeneration. 

A.  The  type  is  applicable  only  where  large  areas  exhibit  on 
strong  soil  a  uniform  advance  growth,  consisting  of  seedlings,  of 
saplings  and  possibly  of  small  poles. 

Previous  to  lumbering,  the  leaf  canopy  consists  of  two  tiers: 
an  upper  tier  formed  by  the  parents  (or  step-parents)  and  a  lower 
tier  formed  by  the  advance  growth.  Lumbering  removes  the  upper 
tier  entirely  and  leaves  the  low^er  tier  intact — if  possible. 

In  the  safety  of  the  lower  tier  lies  the  great  difficulty  of  the 
system,  especially  on  rough  ground,  in  handling  heavy  logs  of  the 
superstructure,  in  dealing  with  cheap  stumpage,  in  cutting  soft 
woods  characterized  by  small  healing  power  and  in  the  absence  of 
an  intricate  system  of  transportation. 

Where  the  upper  story  of  trees  consists  of  say  10,000  feet  b.  m. 
per  acre,  or  of  more,  the  ground  is  literally  littered  with  logs  or 
boles  during  the  logging  operations,  and  the  advance  growth  has  but 
a  slight  chance  to  survive  the  death  of  its  progenitors. 

B.  Actual  application:  The  type  is  found,  in  rare  cases,  abroad 
under  the  misnomer  of  a  moditied  "  selection  system,"  where  and 
when  the  logger  returns  for  a  wholesale  removal  of  mature  trees, 
at  intervals  of  about  twenty  years,  to  the  same  compartments. 

The  type  is  also  practical  where  prolific  seed  years  produce, 
in  mild  sites  and  on  strong  soil,  a  uniform  advance  growth  in  even- 
aged  Beech  or  Firwoods,  without  any  previous  human  interfei'ence 
with  the  leaf  canopy  overhead  (so-called  regeneration  from  a  com- 
plete-growing stock). 

In  the  Uniie^.  States,  compact  advance  growth  is  rarely  found^ 
possibly  so  in  the  case  of  Tsuga  heterophylla.  The  destruction  of 
the  superstructure,  however,  usually  followed  by  fires,  tends  to  anni- 
hilate every  vestige  of  advance  growth. 

C.  Advantages: 

Where  the  system  can  be  carried  through,  it  offers  the  following 
advantages : 

I.  Concentrated  logging. 

II.  Well-preserved  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

III.  Soil  never  idling,  but  producing  without  any  delay. 


120 


SYLVICULTURE 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  The  type  is  applicable  only  to  intense  shade  bearers;  and 
these  shade  bearers  are  very  apt  to  sutfer  from  sudden  changes  of 
environments. 

II.  The  logging  expenses  are  very  badly  increased  in  the  attempt 
to  save  the  advance  growth  from  destruction. 

III.  Under  any  circumstances,  the  rapid  removal  of  mother  trees 
inflicts  scars  upon  the  young  growth  apt  to  serve  as  entrance  gates 
for  fungi  and  insects. 

Paragraph  LIV.  The  advance  growth  strip  type  of  natural  seed  re- 
generation. 

A.  Advance  growth,  being  a  chance  product,  is  rarely  found  in 
symmetrical,  long-drawn  strips.  "V\^lere  the  cleared  strip-type  is  in- 
troduced, however,  a  strip  of  advance  growth  is  often  and  easily 
started  underneath  the  border  trees  joining  the  cleared  strip  to  the 
v.indward.  In  that  ease,  the  advance  growth  strip-type  is  bastardized 
with  the  cleared  strip  type. 

"B.  Actual  application: 

The  type  is  found  only  in  the  bastard  form  just  mentioned. 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  Xo  expense  required  for  regeneration  (unless  weeds,  leaves 
or  moss  are  removed). 

II.  Advance  growth  is  readily  saved,  where  the  logs  are  removed 
through  the  adjoining  woods. 

III.  A  road  system  touching  the  lower  edge  of  the  strips  is 
sufficient. 

IV.  Soil  is  never  laid  bare. 

V.  Little  damage  from  rainfall. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Scattering  operations. 

II.  Type  is  not  applicable  to  light  demanders. 

III.  Hypermature  trees  must  be  left  in  the  woods  until  the 
strips,  after  many  years,  may  approach  them. 

IV.  Points  of  attack  from  which  cutting  may  proceed  are  apt 
to  be  lacking,  unless  the  forester  is  able  to  maintain  a  very  large 
number  of  narrow  cutting  series,  helped  by  the  configuration  of 
the  ground. 

Paragraph  LV.     The  advance  growth  group  type  of  natural  seed  re- 
generation. 
A.  In  nature,  advance  growth  usually  appears  in  small  bunches 
or  in  groups,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  always  a  chance  for  many 
121 


SYLVICULTURE 

seedlings  to  sprout  and  develop  on  a  spot  where  light,  humidity  and 
soil  alloAv  a  single  individual  to  make  a  start  alone.  In  the  primeval 
woods,  groups  of  advance  growth  formed  by  shade-bearing  species 
are  almost  invariably  at  hand.  Even  light  demanders  may  form 
small  groups  of  advance  growth  in  spite  of  a  superstructure  over- 
head, provided  tnat  the  soil  is  strong  enough  to  support  them. 

Such  groups,  freed  from  the  trees  super structing  them,  will  de- 
velop one  or  a  number  of  saplings  which  in  turn  and  in  course  of 
time  may  yield  one  or  a  few  poles  promising  to  grow  into  trees  of 
a  loggable  size. 

Very  frequently  the  groups  are  formed  not  imder  the  leaf  canopy 
of  the  parent  species,  but  imderneath  another  species  acting  as  a 
step-parent. 

Indeed,  step-parents  of  a  rather  selfish  kind,  inimical  to  the 
children,  are  frequently  encountered  in  tree  life,  hanaicapping  and 
killing  the  young  progeny  thirsting  at  their  feet  for  light  and  rain. 

The  endurance  of  advance  growth  living  under  adverse  condi- 
tions is  at  times  remarkably  great.  Fir,  Spruce,  Beech  and  Maple 
may  be  met  grown  only  six  feet  high  when  60  years  old,  retarded  by 
parental  superstructure. 

The  pure  advance  growth  group  type  is  frequently  bastardized, 
in  Europe,  w4th  the  shelterwood  group  type  when  the  forester 
uses  existing  groups  of  advance  growth  as  nuclei  to  be  gradually 
enlarged,  instead  of  using  spots  as  nuclei  for  group  regeneration  on 
which  the  soil  chances  to  be  in  a  conceptions  condition.  Further, 
when  a  shelterw^ood  group  is  forming,  advance  growth  groups  are 
frequently  started,  under  the  influence  of  side  light  on  seedlings 
and  humus,  at  a  goodly  distance  from  the  shelterwood  group,  under- 
neath an  apparently  heavy  superstructure  of  mother  trees. 

The  advance  growth  group  type  pure  and  simple,  however, 
nieiely  implies  the  freeing  of  chance  growth  from  a  superstructure. 
It  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  gradual  enlargement  of  a  group 
by  ringwise  cutting  around  the  group. 

The  "  hairdressing "  or  groups  of  advance  growth  is  some- 
times commendable. 

B.  Actual  Application:  Systematically,  tliis  type  is  nowhere 
applied  in  its  purit}\  Accidentally,  however,  the  lumbermen  of 
America  happen  to  employ  it  in  woods  composed  of  Fir,  Hemlock, 
Maple,  Beech,  etc. 

Primeval  nature  employs  this  type  quite  largely  (f.  i.,  in  Chest- 
nut-oak woods  at  Biltmore). 


122 


SYLVICULTURE 

C.  Advantages:  The  advantages  of  the  type  are  identical  with 
those  given  under  C,  I,  II  and  IV,  in  paragraph  LIV.  In  addition, 
this  type  may  often  allow  the  forester  to  favor  a  desirable  species 
of  shade-bearing  character. 

Under  sylviciiltural  care,  it  renders  regeneration  an  absolute 
certainty.  The  trees  forming  the  superstructure  frequently  happen 
to  be  of  a  marketable  size.  The  tj-pe  does  not  require  much  sylvi- 
cultural  understanding. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Border  trees  to  the  leeward  of  advance  growth  are  subject 
to  windfall  and  sun  scald. 

II.  Advance  growth  groups  continue  to  be  badly  suppressed, 
along  the  edge  of  the  group,  by  border  trees. 

III.  The  logging  operations  are  scattering,  and  an  intricate 
system  of  permanent  roads  is  required. 

IV.  Only  intense  shade  bearers  can  be  properly  managed  under 
this  type;  light  demanders  found  in  mixture  with  shade  bearers 
must  gradually  disappear  from  the  mixture.  The  shade  bearers  will 
readily  form  groups  of  advance  growth  underneath  light  demanders; 
but  hot  vice  versa. 

Paragraph  LVI.    The  advance  growth  selection  type  of  natural  seed 
regeneration. 

A.  This  type  is  usually  bastardized  with  the  cleared  and  with 
the    shelterwood    selection    type. 

The  selection  by  the  forester  of  trees  to  be  cut  might  be  either 
by  single  trees  or  by  very  small  bunches  of  trees  underlaid  with 
a  carpet  of  advance  growth  covering  about  one  one-hundredth  acre 
of  gi'ound. 

The  logging  operations,  as  in  all  selection  types,  are  exceed- 
ingly scattering;  indeed,  they  ought  to  continuously  extend,  as  a 
matter  of   theoretical  principle,  over  the  entire  forest. 

Only  shade  bearers,  notably  Fir,  Hemlock  and  Spruce,  are  well 
adapted  to   the  type  of  advance  growth   selection. 

The  type,  like  the  cleared  and  the  shelterwood  selection  type, 
renders  the  construction  of  an  intricate  network  of  roads  neces- 
sary. Every  tree,  so  to  speak — not  every  strip  or  every  compart- 
ment— must  be  continuously  accessible. 

It  might  be  necessary  to  prepare  the  soil,  in  scattered  patches, 
where  the  layer  of  humus  is  too  deep,  and  wnere  the  soil  is  so 
hardened  or  so  covered  with  weeds  as  to  prevent  any  chance  of 
n.  s.  r. 

123 


SYLVICULTURE 

Since  the  cuttings  are  comparatively  light,  the  removal  of  the 
logs   prepares   the  ground  insvifficiently  for  the  conception  of  seed. 

Seedlings  and  saplings  in  advance  growth  stand  under  very 
heavy  shade  for  many  a  year,  usually  in  small  bunches  of  a  few 
dozen  specimens.  Misshapen  seedlings  and  saplings,  also  those 
badly  damaged  during  logging  operations,  should  be  cut,  or  cop- 
piced in  the   case   of   hardwoods. 

B.  Actual  application: 

Wherever  the  selection  type  is  applied  in  Europe,  it  is  pre- 
eminently applied  in  tire  shape  of  advance  growth  selection  type; 
especially  so  in  parks,  in  small  farm  wood  lots  and  in  protective 
forests. 

Usually,  every  compartment  (cove,  slope)  contains  a  wild  mix- 
ture of  age  classes  of  trees.  The  axe  returns  to  a  compaitment 
in  intervals  of  from  one  to  ten  years. 

The  Beech,  although  an  intense  shade  bearer,  develops  very 
branchy  stems  imder  such  conditions  (Beech  forests  in  Buckingham- 
shire, England). 

In  primeval  nature,  all  or  practically  all  scattering  and  sparse 
species  are  subjected  to  seed  regeneration  of  the  advance  growth 
selection  type.  The  accidental  death  of  trees  in  the  superstructure 
allows  a  patch  of  advau'ce  growth  found  underneath  to  develop. 

Instances:  White  Oak  and  Scarlet  Oak  at  Biltmore;  also  Spruce 
on  hardwood   slopes   in  the   Adirondacks. 

It  is  surprising  to  find  that  scattering  species  are  regenerated 
by  primeval  nature  in  a  type  which  is  considered  by  the  sylvicul- 
turist  only  applicable  to  intense  shade  bearers.  The  explanation  lies 
in  nature's  long-lasting  patience  and  in  her  failure  to  be  dis- 
heartened  when   failing  in    innumerable   attempts. 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  The  type  protects  the  soil,  and  hence  the  waters,  best  of  all. 

II.  It  protects  the  young  growth  fi=om  frost,  drought,  high 
'  Inds,   insects,   sleet  and   snow. 

III.  It  is  particularly  pleasing,  from  the  aesthetic  standpoint 
by  the  unusually  large  variety  of  the  pictures  proffered. 

IV.  Since  every  acre  of  ground  continuously  retains  its  leaf 
canopy,  no  sunshine,  air  and  rain  go  to  waste  in  yoimg  growth 
insufficiently  covering  areas  laid  bare.  At  the  same  time,  continu- 
ous retention  of  moisture  in  the  soil  allows  of  greater  fertility; 
hence  the  quantity  of  wood  fibre  annually  produced  is  greater  in 
tne  selection  system  than  in  any  other. 

V.  Small  danger  from  winuiall  amongst  parent  trees. 

124 


SYLVICULTURE 

VL  Small  danger  from  fire,  since  the  humus  is  kept  moist 
continuously.  On  the  other  hand,  a  fire  once  broken  out  is 
extremely  hard  to  stop. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Logging  operations  are  very  scattering,  and  hence  expensive. 

The  fall  of  individual,  large  trees  amongst  the  multitude  of 
their  companions  is  very  apt  to  inflict  wounds  upon  them,  througn 
which  fungi  and  insects  enter  readily.  (Cancerous  Firs  of  the 
Black   Forest.) 

IL   A  minute  network   of  permanent  roads   is   required. 

III.  The  primeval  woods,  wherever  they  represent  the  selection 
type,  show  a  preponderance  of  mature  and  hypermature  age  classes. 
Since  the  type  does  not  allow  of  the  removal  of  groups  of  trees  at 
all,  and  of  the  removal  of  individuals  only  where  thej'  are  under- 
laid by  an  advance  growth,  the  owner  of  primeval  woods  adopting 
this  type  is  forced  to  bring  heavy  sacrifices. 

IV.  It  is  very  difficult  to  regenerate  light  demanders  by  this 
type,  where  they  stand  mixed  with  shade  bearers. 

Paragraph  LVII.  Regeneration  of  valuable  species  from  self-sown 
seed  (n.  s.  r.)  with,  amongst  and  into  companions  of  a 
weedy  character. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  only  a  few  of  the  hundreds  of 
seedlings  raised  (artificially  or  naturally)  by  the  forester  have  a 
chance    co   develop   into  poles,   standards   and  veterans. 

Dense  thickets,  consisting  of  many  saplings,  are  merely  re- 
quired to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  to  prevent,  by 
natural  pruning,  the  young  boles  from  growing  into  brushy  and 
branchy   specimens    ("orchard  trees"). 

For  the  purpose  at  stake  it  is  immaterial,  in  a  sense,  whether 
the  thickets  consist  of  a  '"  nicb  "  of  shrubby  weeds  mixed  with  a 
few  '■  aristocrats "  hailing  from  valuable  species,  or  whether  the 
entire  thicket  consists  of  "aristocrats."  More  than  that;  unless 
the  aristocrat  has  a  value  already  as  a  sapling  or  as  a  small  pole, 
the  "  mob "  frequently  is  more  conducive  to  proper  soil  protection 
and  to  proper  development  of  the  "  aristoci'acy "  into  large  poles 
and  standards  tiian  a  purely  aristocratic  crowd. 

The  danger,  of  course,  prevails  continuously  lest  the  aristo- 
crats might  be   overtopped  and  killed  by  the   mob. 

A.  "\Mierever  the  mob  consists  of  even-aged  seedlings  (not  of 
stoolshoots)  of  shrubs,  that  danger  is  small,  shrubs  usually  exhibit - 

125 


SYLVICULTURE 

ing  a  slow  rate  of  height  growth  (Alder;  Dogwood;  Hazel;  Witch- 
hazel;   Rhododendron,  etc.). 

Stoolshoots  of  shrubs,  on  the  other  hand,  frequently  grow  so 
fast,  so  dense  and  so  rank  that  they  are  sure  to  ovei^power  an 
aristocracy   of   seedlings   of  even  age. 

If  the  moo  promises  to  easily  obtain  the  upper  hand,  then  it 
is  usually  wise  to  delay  regeneration  until  the  shrubbage  shows,  at 
a  much  later  year,  signs  of  a  declining  growth  (Calmia) ;  or  else 
to  wait  until  the  shrubs  allow  a  deadening  (Dogwood) ;  or  to  fire 
the  shrubbage  in  heavy  seed  years  of  the  aristoci'atic  parentage 
(Blackjack)  ;  or  to  lumber  heavily  if  the  shrubs  are  sensitive  and 
if  the  aristocrats  are  hardy   (Striped  Maple). 

Certain  weedy  shrubs,  f.  i.,  Bamboo  species,  offer  periodically  a 
chance  for  subdual,  viz.,  when  death  overtakes  them  gregariously 
during  their  own  seed  years. 

Other  shrubs  are  eagerly  eaten  (or  peeled)  by  sheep,  goats 
or  cattle,  and  might  be  brought  to  submission,  in  the  winter  fol- 
lowing the  fruiting  of  the  aristocrats,  by  heavy  pasturage  (Mohro- 
dendron  for  the  benefit  of  Yellow  Poplar). 

The  purpose  at  stake,  in  American  Sylviculture,  for  years  to 
come  cannot  consist  in  homogeneous  regeneration  of  aristocrats 
evenly  covering  the  regeneration  area;  it  can  only  consist  in  that 
form,  quality  and  density  of  regeneration — usually  a  partially  suc- 
cessful regeneration — which  the  forester  considers  financially  most 
desirable   (compare  paragraph  XLI  E). 

The  extirpation  of  shrubs  by  pickaxe  and  plow  is  usually  im- 
possible, unless  it  can  be  combined  with  "  taimgya." 

It  is  often  sufficient  for  increased  aristocratic  regeneration  to 
break  or  reduce  the  humus  formed  underneath  the  shrubbage. 

B.  The  battle  against  weed  trees  trying  to  propagate  their  kind 
in  the  forest  is  usually  more  difficult  to  win  than  that  against 
shrubs  since  ~-e  progeny  of  weed  trees  does  not  stop  to  compete 
with  aristocrats  after  the  thicket  stage.  The  forester  must  care- 
fully gauge  the  chances  for  a  final  victory — usually  a  partial  vic- 
tory— of  the  aristocrats,  footing  on  a  knowledge  of  their  relative 
height  growth  and  their  relative  shade  endurance. 

Weed  trees  might  be  prevented  from  successful  seeding  by: 

I.  Deadening  or  stump  peeling. 

II.  Actual  removal   (unless  resulting  in  rank  stoolshoots). 

III.  Sudden  exposure  of  young  progeny  to  draught  or  frost. 

IV.  Maintenance  of  a  dense  humus,  or  of  a  dense  leaf  canopy. 

V.  Pasturage. 

126 


SYLVICULTURE 

VI.  Stopping  all  logging  operations  during  seed  years  of  the 
weed-tree  species. 

VII.  Fire. 

Any  of  these  remedies  will  answer  on  a  regeneration  area  pro- 
vided that  it  inflicts  greater  damage  on  the  weed  trees  than  on 
the  aristocrats,  and  that  the  success  is  fully  commensurate  to  the 
expense. 

A  careful  choice  of  the  type  of  regeneration  (cleared,  shelter- 
wood,  and  advance  growth  types  in  compartments,  strips,  groups 
or  patches)  is,  however,  the  best  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  forester 
against  mobbish  usurpation. 

The  time  may  come  when  the  forester  will  avail  himself  of 
plagues  of  fungi,  vertebrates  and  insects  in  the  struggle  against 
weed   trees. 

Obviously,  where  the  logger,  followed  by  fires,  removes  every 
vestige  of  the  aristocracy  and  every  chance  for  its  reproduction  on 
aeteriorated  soil,  there  the  sylvan  battle  is  lost  for  the  forester 
beiore  it  is  begun. 

Frequently  in  nature's  economy  and  ecology  a  crop  of  weed 
trees  (Birches,  Cottonwoods)  intervenes  between  two  generations  of 
aristocrats.  This  "  rotation  of  crops "  resembles  that  of  agricul- 
ture, and  is  hard  to  explain.  Attempted  explanations  are:  Exhaus- 
tion of  soil  in  mineral  matter  required  by  the  previous  species. 
Presence  of  baccilli,  bacteria,  fungi,  insects,  etc.,  inimical  to  the 
previous  species. 

Paragraph  LVIII.  Pedagogy  of  the  nigh  forest. 

Forest  pedagogy  or  forest  tendance,  the  second  part  of  the 
sylviculturists'  activity,  is  of  little  importance  in  America  at  the 
present  time  since  there  are  no  wood  crops  at  hand  which  might 
be  profitably  tended.  Forest  protection,  usually  considered  a  branch 
of  forestry,  is  merely  a  oranch  of  forest  tendance. 

The  following  operations  are  here  treated  under  the  heading 
forest  tendance: 

A.   Cleaning  > 

B    \Y    d'   o-   r  Iiidii'ectly  remunerative  acts  or  investments. 

C.  Improvement   cuttings    )    Directly  remunerative  acts  yielding 

D.  Thinning  tj       a  surplus  revenue. 

F.  Underplanting   ) 

E-P,       .  y  Indirectlv  remunerative  acts  or  investments. 

.  Pruning  ( 

The  definitions  of  the  terms  "  cleaning,"  "  weeaing,"  "  improve- 
ment  cutting "   and   "  thinning "   are   so  indistinct   that   it   is   often 
127 


.  SYLVICULTURE 

difficult  to  diflferentiate  them.  Definitions  might  be  based  either 
on  the  age  of  the  wood  crop  tended,  or  on  the  purpose  aimed  at, 
or  on  the  financial  side  of  the  tending. 

Cleaning  and  weeding  are  applied  for  the  benefit  of  very  young 
growth  and  usually  require  an  investment. 

Pruning,  thinning  and  imi^rovement  cutting  are  applied  for  the 
uenefit  of  polewoods  or  thickets. 

Improvement  cuttings  and  thinnings  usually  furnish  a  surplus 
revenue  whilst  pruning  succeeds  only  in  rare  cases  to  be  directly 
remunerative. 

Paragraph  LIX.     Cleaning  in  high  forest. 

Cleaning  may  occur  during  the  seedling  stage  and  the  small 
sapling  stage.  It  implies  the  removal  of  saplings  forming  a 
shrubby  advance  growth  (wolves)  ;  or  the  removal  of  undesirable 
stoolshoots;  or  the  removal  of  seedlings  and  saplings  belonging  to 
a  less-desirable  species  competing  for  space  in  a  young  forest.  In 
natural  seed  regenerations,  cleaning  is  particularly  desirable.  In- 
stances: Removing  poor  coppice  shoots  which  oppress  by  faster 
growth  the  valuable  seedlings  of  Yellow  Poplar.  Removing  Birch, 
Vive  Cherry,  Thorns  and  Briars  in  young  plantations  of  White  Pine, 
\ellow  Pine  and  Spruce.  ^\niere  a  regeneration  area  of  strong  soil 
has  been  burned  previous  to  planting,  the  competition  of  volunteer 
growth  is  frequently  such  as  to  make  cleaning  necessary.  The  for- 
ester should  take  care,  however,  not  to  extirpate  species  now  of 
little  A'alue,  but  possibly  of  a  fair  future  value. 

In  mixed  regeneration,  cleaning  offers  a  good  means  to  regulate 
the  proportion  of  species  admixed.  The  expense  incurred  for  cleaning 
must  be  commensurate  to  the  financial  effect  of  the  operation.  In- 
struments used  are  axe  and  brush  hook;  also  long-handled  clean- 
ing shears. 

Paragraph  LX.     Weeding  in  high  forest. 

A  plant,  either  herbaceous  or  ligneous,  which  has  a  negative 
value  is  a  "  weed."  It  might  be  a  cripple  of  an  otherwise  very 
valuable  species  (fire  crippled  Chestnut  in  Pisgah  Potest),  or  it  might 
belong  to  a  species  having  no  commercial  value  (Rhododendron, 
Witch-hazel,  Black  Gum,  Halesia,  Chinquapin). 

Weeding  implies  the  removal  of  large  saplings,  poles  and  trees 

having   the   character   of   weeds.     Weeding  may   take   place   before 

regeneration,   or   after  regeneration  has  been   started.      It  may   act 

incidentally  as  a  preparatory  cutting,  a  seeding  cutting  or  a  final 

128 


SYLVICULTURE 

i3moval.  It  pays  only  as  an  investment  since  the  stuff  removed  lias 
a  negative  value. 

The  purpose  of  weeding  might  be  the  extirpation  of  sup- 
pressors of  young  growth;  or  an  exchange  of  unhealthy  crooked, 
iire-scalded,  flat-headed  poles  for  new,  vigoroiis  stump  sprouts 
(Spanish  and  White   Oak  at  Biltmore). 

The  term  "  weeding  "  is  not  found  in  books  on  Sylviculture ;  it 
forms,  however,  under  present  conditions  often  one  of  the  most 
important  and  most  remunerative  sylvicultural  acts. 

Weeds  are  either  girdled    (deadened)   or  cut. 

In  the  case  of  weeds  having  a  diameter  of  over  6  inches, 
girdling  is  often  preferable,  because  cheaper  than  cutting.  More- 
over, the  cutting  of  broad  leaf  weeds  often  tends  to  merely  replace 
the  weed  by  weed  sprouts. 

To  prevent  this,  in  the  case  of  sapling  weeds,  crushing  shears 
might  be  used. 

Some  cottonwoods  cannot  be  extirpated  by  deadening.  In  that 
case,  the  peeling  of  a  strip  of  bark  three  feet  long  at  a  point  two 
feet  above  ground  is  advisable.  Cutting  of  weeds  in  August  reduces 
the  chances  of  their  recovery.  In  the  Adirondacks,  the  weeding  of 
Beech  overshadowing  Spruce  might  be  advisable,  because  remunera- 
tive. 

Paragraph  LXI.     Improvement  cutting  in  high  forest. 

The  term  improvement  cutting  was  introduced  into  Indian  prac- 
tice by  Sir  Lietrich  Brandis.  Improvement  cuttings  are  cuttings 
for   revenue   and   for   partial  regeneration,   combined  -with   weeding. 

An  improvement  cutting  extracts  from  irregular  w^oods: 

A.  Hypermature  or  dead  trees  still  of  value. 

B.  Misshapen  immature  trees. 

C.  Species  of  minor  value. 

D.  Weeds  of  pole  size  and  tree  size. 

Essential  it  is  for  the  character  of  an  improvement  cutting, 
that  it  is  intended  to  result,  on  the  aggregate,  in  a  surplus  revenue. 
Cuttings,  on  the  other  hand,  which  leave  the  premises  in  a  materially 
decreased  financial  value,  can,  of  course,  not  be  considered  as  im- 
provement cuttings.  Again,  cuttings  made  at  a  sacrifice,  with  a 
view  to  an  increased  prospective  value  of  the  forest,  are  "  weedings  " 
or  "  cleanings  "  w^hich  must  be  considered  as  investments,  like  the 
expenses  spent  for  regeneration. 

I.  The  purpose  of  improvement  cuttings  is  or  may   be: 

a.  A  surplus  revenue. 

129 


SYLVICULTURE 

b.  Improvea  financial  prospects  of  the  remaining  crop  carried 
about  by: 

L  Kemoval  of  trees  and  poles  acting  as  suppressors; 

2.  Removal  of  inferior  trees   and   poles   acting   as   competitors; 

3.  Partial  removal  of  a  superstructure  on  a  regeneration  area; 

4.  Removal  of  less  desirable  individuals  acting  as  seed-trees. 

c.  The  effect  of  a  preparatory  cutting,  a  seed  cutting  or  a  final 
cutting  in  thin,  irregular  woods,  without  removing  well-grown 
mother  trees  of  desirable  species. 

d.  Reduced  danger  from  fire,  fungi  and  insects. 

II.  Kinds  of  improvement  cuttings  are: 

a.  Improvement  cuttings  in  primeval  woods. 

b.  Improvement   cuttings  in   culled   woods. 

c.  Improvement  cuttings  in  woods  maltreated  by  fire  and  pas- 
turage. 

III.  Marking:  Trees  and  poles  to  be  removed  in  an  improve- 
]nent  cutting  must  be  individually  marked  by  the  sylviculturist. 

Generalizing  rules  for  marking  cannot  be  given;  each  tree  or 
pole  must  be  dealt  with  according  to  its  individual  merits  and 
demerits. 

xhe  marking  by  tlie  forester  of  improvement  cuttings  is,  con- 
sequently, a  timetaKing  afi'air. 

IV.  Localities:  Irregular,  tuin  woods  composed  of  a  multitude  of 
species   deserve   improvement   cuttings. 

The  local  market  must  allow  of  the — at  least  partial — utilization 
of  suppressing,  competing,  superstructing  and  less  desirable  indi- 
viduals. 

Paragraph  LXII.    Thinnings  in  high  forest. 

Thinnings  proper  are  practicable  only  in  dense  and  fairly  even- 
aged  groups  or  woods,  always  under  the  proviso  that  a  permanent 
road  system  and  a  nearby  market  allow  of  a  remunerative  outcome 
of  the  act.  In  Pisgah  Forest  thinnings  are  out  of  the  question  as 
the  woods  are  thin  enough.  At  Biltmore,  thinnings  are  made  where 
polewoods  of  Yellow  Pine  occupy  abandoned  fields.  L'p  north, 
from  the  merely  sylvicultural  standpoint,  thinnings  are  possible  in 
the  Jack  Pine  woods,  in  Balsam  thickets,  on  Black  Spruce  slopes, 
in  Lodgepole  Pine  thickets,  etc. 

For  many  a  year  to  come  the  American  forester  will  have 
little  opportunity  to  make  any  thinnings. 

A.  Purposes  of  thinnings: 

I.   To  develop  the  log  diameter  of  large   saplings   and  poles  at 
a  time  at  which  the  log  axis  has  been  obtained. 
180 


SYLVICULTURE 

II.  To   increase   the   volume  increment  per  acre. 

III.  To  increase  tlie  quality  increment  of  favorably  predestined 
mess-mates. 

IV.  To  reduce  the  danger  from  forest  fires  (dead  and  dying 
trees),  insect  pests  and  fungi  plagues. 

V.  To  remove  cripples  and  wolves. 

VI.  Early  financial  returns. 

VII.  Reduction  of  investment. 

V  III.  Shortening  of  the  rotation  by  feeding  a  lesser  number  of 
mess-mates  on  a  relatively  larger  amount  of  food  (viz.  moisture, 
heat,  lignt,  mineral  matter,  etc.). 

lA.  Regulation  of  the  relative  proportion  of  species  in  mixed 
pole  woods. 

B.  The  season  for  thinning  depends  upon  local  climate,  season- 
able prices  of  labor,  advisability  of  peeling  and  intensity  of  thin- 
ning. The  season  usually  selected  for  thinning  in  Europe  is  the 
late  winter  when  the  main  cuttings  are  completed. 

C.  The  time  for  thinning.  Thinnings  should  begin  in  the  late 
thicket  stage  and  should  be  repeated,  to  begin  with,  in  five-year 
intervals,  say  from  tne  year  thirty  to  sixty.  Thereafter  the  inter- 
vals are  increased  up  to  the  year  eighty  or  ninety.  A  preparatory 
cutting,  although  conducted  like  a  thinning,  is  no  thinning,  since 
its  purpose  is  regeneration.  Thinnings  stop  at  the  end  of  the  pole 
stage.  Where  poles  are  non-salable,  for  instance,  in  European  moun- 
tain districts  and  almost  everywhere  in  America  (excepting  Biltmore 
Estate),  thinnings  cannot  be  made. 

D.  The  material  supplied  by  thinning  may  consist  of  firewood, 
pulp  wood,  mine  props,  fence  posts,  telephone  poles,  hop  poles,  hoop 
poles,  tool  handles,  bolts  for  spokes,  locust  pins,  tannin  wood,  etc. 

In  European  practice  the  number  of  cubic  feet  obtained  by  thin- 
nings during  the  course  of  a  rotation  per  acre  equals  one-quarter  or 
one-half  of  the  number  of  cubic  feet  obtained  by  the  final  cut. 
HeaA^  thinnings,  as  practiced  in  Denmark,  are  said  to  yield  as  many 
cubic  feet  in  the  aggregate  of  a  rotation  as  the  final  cut. 

The  tool  used  for  thinning  is  invariably  the  axe. 

E.  Kinds  of  thinnings:  The  old  doctrine  was:  "Thin  early,  fre- 
quently, moderately ! " 

This  rule  has  been  gradually  abandoned  during  the  past  twenty 
years.  The  method  of  thinning  natiu'ally  differs  according  to  the 
purpose  of  it.  William  Schlich  distinguished  between  quality  thin- 
nings, made  to  improve  the  timber  quality  of  the  trees  left;  and 
quantity  thinnings  meant  to  result  in  the  maximum  production  of 
wood  fibre  per  acre  per  annum. 

L31 


SYLVICULTURE 

If  left  alone,  a  dense  thicket  grows  sIo^\■ly  only,  the  food  being 
subdivided  among  a  large  number  oi  messmates.  Toward  the  begin- 
ning of  forestry,  sylviculturists  were  satisfied  with  thinnings  bury- 
ing the  dead  and  moribund  trees.  Later  on,  thinnings  were  extended 
into  the  suppressed  classes.  The  European  experiment  stations  are 
now  deeply  engagea  in  working  out  the  "  best "  method  of  thinning. 
Obviously,  no  method  can  be  best  for  all  sorts  of  species  and  for  all 
sorts  of  local  conditions. 

1.  The  experiment  stations  distinguish  between: 

Grade  1.  Light  thinnings,  removing  the  dead  or  dying. 

Giade  2.  ]\loderate  thinnings,  removing  the  dead,  dying  and 
suppressed. 

Grade  3.  HeaA^  thinnings,  removing  also  the  condominating 
trees,  or  such  of  them  which  are  not  absolutely  essential  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  main  leaf  canopy  overhead. 

Grade  4.  Very  strong  thinnings,  placing  a  limitea  number  of 
dominating  and  predominating  trees  in  a  free  position. 

Results  so  far  published  allot  the  maximum  volume  production 
(exclusive  of  branches)  per  acre  to  Grade  3.  All  these  four  grades 
might  be  characterized  as  "thinnings  from  below"  (Eclaircies  par 
le  bas). 

French  silviculturists  are  advocating,  on  the  other  hand,  "  thin- 
nings from  above"  (Eclaircies  par  le  haut). 

The  Frenchmen,  as  a  matter  of  principle,  leave  a,lone  the  sup- 
pressed lower  stems,  protecting  by  them  the  quality  of  the  soil 
as  well  as  the  clearness  of  boles  within  the  predestined  class.  In 
addition,  they  relieve  the  tension,  friction  and  struggle  for  food 
amongst  the  dominators  by  culling  out  the  worst  developed  domina- 
tors,  or  a  percentage  of  those  dominators  which  stand  too  close 
together,  and  which  have,  consequently,  one-sided  crowns. 

The  objection  to  the  French  method  lies  in  the  following  points: 

a.  Material  without  increment  is  left  on  the  ground. 

b.  Weaklings  and  dying  trees  left  increase  the  dangers  threat- 
ening the  forest. 

c.  Greater  difficulty  in  marking  trees  to  be  removed. 
However,   where   quality    increment   is     at     stake,   the     French 

method  seems  highly  advisable. 

HI.  Radically  different  from  the  systems  of  thinnings  hereto- 
fore prevailing  are  the  revolutionary  views  proffered  by  Borggreve, 
the   "  Bryan "  amongst  European  sylviculturists. 

Borggreve  thinnings  interfere  or  remove  Only  the  predominators 
and  dominators — the  biggest  poles — closest  to  the  best  log  size. 
Such  thinnings  begin  only  at  the  year  sixty  of  a  woodlot;  they 
132 


SYLVICULTURE 

Avithdraw  every  ten  years  the  largest  one-seventh  of  the  stems 
containing  about   one-quarter  of  the  total  volume. 

Of  course,  high  and  early  revenue  is  secured  by  such  practice. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  trees  removed  are  those  growing  at  the 
best  rate  of  interest.  (From  the  sixtieth  year  on  90%  of  annual 
secretion  in  a  woodlot  is  sui)plied  by  the  40%  (in  number)  of  the 
largest  trees). 

The  advisability  of  a  Borggreve  thinning  largely  depends  on 
the  reproductive  power  of  a  wood  thus  "  maltreated."  In  the  case 
of  Yellow  Pine  and  on  poor  soil,  the  reproductive  power  of  a  wood 
seems  too  small  to  allow  of  speedy  repletion  of  the  growing  stock 
and  of  its  leaf  canopy.  Much  "  food "  goes  to  waste  after  Borg- 
greve thinnings.  In  the  case  of  White  Pine  and  Spruce,  the  danger 
from  storm  and  sleet  after  Borggreve  thinnings  must  be  badly 
dreaded. 

IV.  Wagener,  at  the  year  twenty-five  of  a  forest,  makes  a 
thinning  called  "  crown-free-eutting,"  surrounding  the  crown  of 
each  predestined  tree  with  an  air  space  two  and  one-half  feet  wide. 
Dominating  trees  left  should  stand  seven  yards  apart  after  the 
Wagener  thinning.  Suppressed  trees  are  not  interfered  with.  Such 
cuttings  are  much  heavier  than  Borggreve's.  At  the  year  twenty- 
five  the  bole  of  the  dominators  is  not  fully  developed.  Underplanting 
takes  places  at  the  same  time.  The  dominators  left  stand  in  an 
orchard-like  position  and  show  a  very  rapid  diameter  growth.  Only 
one  log  or  so  is  expected  to  be  obtained  from  the  bole;  it  is  obtained, 
however,  within  an  extremely  short  rotation. 

Obviously,  for  coniferous  woods  exposed  to  storm  and  of  poor 
quality  if  wide  ringed,  the  Wagener  system  is  out  of  the  question. 
The  Wagener  thinnings,  unless  they  result  in  a  heavy  growth  of 
adventitious  branches,  might  be  used  to  advantage  for  Black  Wal- 
nut, Black  Cherry  and  Oaks. 

V.  In  mixed  forests  such  species  as  reach  maturity  during  the 
pole  stage  might  be  removed  by  way  of  thinnings;  f.  i.,  Locust  and 
Sassafras  from  a  pole  wood  of  Yellow  Poplar;  Hickory  when  reach- 
ing spoke-bolt  size  from  a  mixtin-e  with  Oaks;  Chestnut  when  reach- 
ing telephone  pole  size  from  a  mixture  with  Oaks,  Black  Gum  and 
Yellow  Poplar. 

Paragraph  LXIII.    Pruning  in  high  forest. 

A.  The  object  at  stake  might  be: 

I.   Production   of   logs    free    from    knots, — especially    free    from 
dead  knots.     Live  or   sound   knots   measuring  one   and   one-quarter 
133 


SYLVICULTURE 

inclien  in  diameter  affect  the  lumber  price  only  slightly.  The  pre- 
vention of  dead  knots  is,  therefore,  most  important.  No  topslioot 
is  formed  without  side  shoots,  and  no  section  of  a  tree  bole  is 
free  from  brancnes  and  free  from  branch  knots.  Hence  the  advisa- 
bility of  pruning  the  boles  oi  such  species  which  develop  branches 
of  large  diameter  and  of  great  persistence  when  dead.  Branches 
(excepting  adventitious  branches)  invariably  start  from  the  central 
core. 

II.  Increased  height  growth. 

III.  The  production  of  cylindrical  boles  of  high  form  figure 
(Pressler's  law  of  bole  formation).  (H)viously,  "  II"  and  "  III"  are 
obtained  only  by  removing  live  branches. 

IV.  The  reduction  of  the  sliarle  falling  on  a  young,  promising 
undergrowth. 

V.  The  reduction  of  cianger  from  fire  in  coniferous  woods  close 
to  public  roads. 

B.  bpecies:  Hardwdods  suffer  less  from  the  removal  of  green 
branches  than  softwoods.  Green  branches  of  over  five  inches  in 
diameter  should  not  be  removed  at  all,  except  in  case  "  IV,"  owing 
to  the  certainty  of  subsequent  disease. 

Oak  heals  the  wound  inflicted  by  pruning  best;  Ash  is  likely 
to  split;  Maple  is  slow  in  closing  a  wound;  Birch  soon  shows  dis- 
ease;  Yellow  Pine  covers  the  wound  quickly  with  rosin. 

C.  Actual  European  practice: 

The  practice  restricts  pruning  to  the  case  "  I  "  and  m  ithin  case 
"I"  to: 

I.  Dead  branches. 

II.  Polewoods  forty  years  to  sixty  years  old. 

HI.  Limited  numbers  of  poles  (say  100)  per  acre,  namely,  to  the 
specimens  presumably  predestined  to  reach  the  end  of  the  rotation. 

Pruning  extends  to  a  height  reaching  up  to  forty  feet,  is  done 
by  help  of  ladders,  of  a  climbing  apparatus  (not  climbing  irons) 
or  of  saws  attached  to  very  long  poles.  The  best  saw  is  the 
■'Alers  "  construction. 

In  ±iTance,  sharp,  curved  blades  are  preferred  to  saws,  since 
they  produce  a  smoother  cut. 

The  branch  is  cut  off  as  close  to  the  bole  as  possible.  Large 
branches  are  cut  off  in  sections  to  prevent  the  bole  from  being 
scarred.  In  the  case  of  broad-leafed  species  and  in  the  case  oi 
live  branches,  large  v.'ounds  are  always  tarred.  Tarring  in  spring 
is  impossible. 


134 


SYLVICULTUI^E 

Expense  at  Biltmore  for  pruning  Yellow  Pine  to  a  height  of 
16  feet  is  two  cents  per  tree. 

The  best  months  for  pruning  are  the  months  at  which  the 
sap  is  clown. 

The  advisability  of  pruning  depends  largely  on  tlie  prospective 
price — difference  between  clear  lumber  and  knotty  lumber. 

Pruning  at  a  late  date,  say  20  years  before  cutting,  is  of 
no  use.  Theoretically  it  is  best  to  remove  dead  branches  in  the 
year  of  their  death. 

Where  pruning  is  practiced,  natural  pruning  produced  by  dense 
planting  and  hence  dense  planting  itself  might  be  spared,  a  proposi- 
tion which  cannot  be  generally  indorsed. 

Literature:  Translation  of  DeCourval  by  Massachusetts  Forestry 
Association. 

Paragraph  LXIV.     Underplanting  in  high  forest. 

All  upper  story  of  high  forest  might  be  underplanted  during  the 
pole  stage  either  artificially  or  by  natural  seed  regeneration.  In 
the  latter  case,  weed  species  may  answer  the  purpose.  Underplanting 
may  improve  the  timber  quality  of  the  upper  growth.  It  usually 
does  improve  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

Frequeniiy  the  purpose  at  stake  in  underplanting  is  that  of 
fully  utilizing  tne  productive  capacity  of  the  soil  and  of  the  atmos- 
phere which  is  not  entirely  used  by  the  upper  story  of  growth. 
In  that  case,  underplanting  cannot  be  considered  as  a  method  of 
forest  pedagogy. 

A.  The  species  to  be  underplanted  are,  notably,  light  demanders ; 
for  instance,  Yellow  Pines;  Oaks;  Hickories;  Larcheis;  Yellow 
Poplar,  etc.  In  the  primeval  woods.  Long-leaf  Pine,  Yellow  Pine, 
Yellow  Poplar,  etc.,  show  a  natural   undergrowth. 

In  practice,  the  wood  to  be  underplanted  is  40  to  60  years  old. 
HeaA'y  "  thinnings  from  below  "  precede  underplanting. 

B.  The  species  used  for  artificial  underplanting  are  shade  bearers 
and,  if  possible;,  soil  improvers,  notably  Beech,  Hard  Maple,  Fir, 
Lawson's  Cypress,  White  Pine,  Chestnut,  Hemlock,  etc. 

Spruce  is  now  disliked  for  underplanting,  since  it  Hnfavorably 
affects  the  growth  of  the  upper  story.  Seedlings  one  or  two  years 
old  are  commonly  used  for  underplanting.  Dogwood,  Black  Gum, 
Witch  Hazel,  Chinquapin,  Witch  Hopple,  possibly  Kalmia  and 
Rhododendron  might  be  used  for  underplanting  where  mere  soil 
protection  is  desired. 

The  primeval  hardwoods  of  the  Alleghanies  are  frequently  and 
densely  underplanted  with  a  low  jungle  formed  by  Ericaceae. 
135  " 


SYLVICULTURE 

Paragraph  LXV.    Key  to  the  Forms  of  High  Forest. 

That  general  condition  of  a  forest  is  termed  its  "  sylvicultural 
form  "  which  is  brought  about  by  its  type  or  types  of  past  regenera- 
tion, hence  by  its  disjilay  of  age  classes  and  by  the  arrangement  of 
the  species  exhibited. 

The  treatment  alloted  to  the  "form"  by  the  forester,  provided 
that  it  is  a  systematic  treatment,  is  termed  its  "sylvicultural 
system." 

The  multitude  of  forms  found  in  primeval  nature  is  innumerable, 
since  the  "molds"  from  which  the  forms  are  cast,  vary  indefinitely 
with  every  wrinkle  of  the  topografthy  and  every  variation  of  the 
climate. 

Man's  interference  has  tended — at  least  temporarily — to  further 
increase  the  multitude  of  forms. 

It  is  a  hard  task  to  differentiate  amongst  this  huge  collection  of 
forms  and  to  arrange  the  collection  into  "orders,"  "families," 
"genera"  and  "species"  composing  it. 

A  priori,  two  great  groups  of  forms  might  be  singled  out, 
namely  "primeval  forms"  the  product  of  unbiased  nature  and 
"second  groivtJi  forms,"  the  product  of  nature  influenced  by  man's 
interference.  This  human  interference  might  have  been  of  a  char- 
acter utterly  disregarding  sylvicultural  ends  ("culled  forms")  ;  or 
human  art  might  have  tried,  successfully  or  unsuccessfully,  to  lend 
a  helping  hand   ("cultured  forms"). 

The  manner  in  which  the  various  age  classes  of  the  forest  are 
mixed  within  the  "orders  of  forms"  is  of  paramount  interest.  From 
this  manner  of  mixing  depend: 

I.  The  manner  and  the  possibility  of  remunerative  lumbering. 

II.  The  type  metliod  and  the  expense  of  regeneAition  and 
pedagogy. 

III.  The  dangers  from  insects,  fungi,  fire,  storm,  etc.,  threatening 
the  forest. 

The  functions  of  the  mixture  are  so  all-important  in  forestry, 
that  the  synthesis  of  the  age-classes  must  serve  as  a  main  criterion 
in  the  construction  of  a  key  to  the  sylvicultural  forms. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  age  differences  of,  say, 
20  years  are  very  conspicuous  during  the  seedling,  sapling  and  pole 
stage  of  the  forest;  whilst  the  keenest  eye  cannot  detect  these  same 
differences  in  an  old  tree  forest. 

In  mixed  forests  exhibiting  a  large  variety  of  species  the  analysis 
of  the  form  presents  particular  difficulties.     Such  is  the  case  by  far 

136 


SYLVICULTURE- 

iiiore  fi-equeiitly  in  pi-imeval  than  in  culled  or  cultured  high  forest. 
Sometimes  a  distinct  form  of  a  minor,  scattering  species  appears  to 
be  ''grafted'"'  upon  a  distinct  form  of  one  or  several  major,  gregarious 
species  ( "grafted  forms" ) .  Where  two  distinct  forms  in  mixture 
occupy  more  equal  shares  (not  minor  and  major  shares)  in  the 
aggregate  display,  we  may  speak  of  "wedded  forms."  "Husl)and  and 
wife,  though  distinct  individuals,  unite  for  a  life  in  a  household  of 
their  own." 

A.  Primeval  forms  of  high  forest. 

I.  Characteristic  for  all  primeval  forms  is  a  relative  preponder- 
ance of  the  hypermature  age-classes  (veterans)  ;  a  relative  deficiency 
of  the  youngest  age-classes  (seedlings,  saplings  and  poles)  ;  the 
presence  of  a  large  number  of  dead,  decaying  or  unsound  specimens 
only  temporarily  excelled  in  the  "culled  forms;"  a  large  number  of 
dead  corpses  of  trees  spread  flat  on  the  ground;  irregular  confines 
of  the  parts  composing  the  aggregates;  irregular  composition  of 
such  parts  by  age-classes  and  species,  many  of  which  may  be  weeds; 
usually  a  hea^y  layer  of  humus  on  the  ground;  usually  the  presence 
of  a  few  strikingly  large  and  spotless  trees  overtowering  their 
neighbors;  absolute  lack  of  permanent  means  of  transportation. 

II.  Subdivision  of  primeval  forms  of  high  forest. 

According  to  the  relative  share  held  by  species  of  "  weed  trees  " 
in  the  mixture  of  species  composing  them,  the  primeval  forests  miglit 
be  subdivided  into  pauci,  multi  and  omnivendible  forests.  Primeval 
woods,  in  which  only  10%  of  the  timber  species  command  a  value, 
might  be  called  "paucivendible";  at  50%,  the  term  "multivendible" 
and  at  approximately  100%,  the  term  "omnivendible"  might  be 
applied. 

The  vendibility  of  the  members  composing  the  forest,  whilst  it 
controls  the  possibility  and  the  manner  of  its  sylvicultural  manage- 
ment, does  not  influence,  however,  the  actual  display  of  the  forest 
in  the  slightest  degree. 

It  will  be  best,  consequently,  to  subjoin  the  viewpoint  of  vendi- 
bility to  the  viewpoint  of  actual  composition  of  the  forest  as  dis- 
played in  the  size  of  its  composing  parts — notably  of  its  age-classes. 

Thus  we  arrive  at: 

a.  A  selection  form,  where  the  age-classes  raised  are  mixed  by 
trees  or  small  patches — a  very  uneven-aged  form; 

b.  A  group  form,  where  the  age-classes  raised  are  segregated  in 
groups  occupying  from  one-tenth  to  four  acres; 

c.  A  compartment  form,  where  the  age-classes  raised  are  segre- 
gated in  large,  coherent  areas  (coves,  slopes)  covering  from  twenty  to 
one  hundred  acres — a  very  evenaged  form  of  forest. 

137 


SYLVICULTURE 

The  ejiideta  "paucivendible",  '■multiveiidible"  and  "omnivendible" 
added  to  the  terms  "selection  form",  "group  form"  and  "compart- 
ment form"  readily  explain,  in  crude  lines,  the  sylvicultural  as  well 
as  the  economic  display  of  a  primeval  forest. 

The  groups  or  the  compartments  often  show  a  sprinkling  of 
huge  trees  known  as  "standards",  having  a  much  higher  age  and 
frequently  belonging  to  a  species  different  from  that  or  those  form- 
ing the  main  growing  stock.     Instances  are: 

Yellow  Poplar  standards  in  Beech  compartments; 

White  Pine  standards  in  Balsam  compartments; 

Yellow  Pine  standards  in  Oak  groups; 

Cuban  Pine  standards  in  Cuban  Pine  groups. 

Long-leaf  Pine  standards  in  Cuban  Pine  groups. 

Naturally,  where  the  standards  belong  to  several  age-classes  and 
do  not  form  a  distinct  age-class  by  themselves,  we  merely  meet  a 
selection  forjn. 

Standards  in  primeval  woods  are 'frequent  enough  to  call  for 
the  singling  out  of  a  fourth  form,  namely: 

d.  A  standard   form,  whicli  might  lie  again   subdivided   into: 

A  form  of  :;tandards  over  groups; 

A  form  of  standards  over  compartments. 

A  variety  of  the  latter  subform  found  in  the  Chaparal  thickets 
of  California  and  in  the  Calmia  thickets  of  North  Carolina  might 
be  termed  "form  of  standards  over  paucivendible  compartments." 

The  two-storied  high  forest  is  often  formed  by  two  or  more 
distinct  species  appearing  in  distinct  forms.  It  had  better  be  con- 
sidered as  a  combination  of  forms,  one  form  being  grafted  upon 
another  (f.  i.,  multivendible  compartments  of  Douglas  Fir  grafted 
upon  the  paucivendible  selection  form  of  Hemlock)  ;  or  one  form 
being  wedded  w'ith  another  (f.  i.,  multivendible  gioup  form  of  Long- 
leaf  Pine  wedded  with  paucivendible  compartments  of  Black  Jack 
Oak). 

The  term  "two-storied  high  forest"  properly  applies  only  to  a 
permanent  combination  of  two  tiers  of  trees  (representing  one  or 
more  species),  each  tier  emanating  from  regeneration  of  the  com- 
partment type  of  n.  s.  r.  It  is  a  compartment  form  wedded  with  a 
compartment  form. 

III.  Treatment   of   primeval   forests: 

The  only  treatment  required  is  of  a  protective,  not  of  a  sylvi- 
cultural  character. 

As  long  as  the  forest  retains  its  primeval  display,  unhampered 
by  human  interference,  the  regeneration  of  the  primeval  selection 
form  is  of  the  cleared,  shelterwood  or  advance  growth  selection  type; 
L3S 


SYLVICULTURE 

the  regeneration  of  the  primeval  group  form  is  of  the  cleared  or 
f.dvanee  growth  group  type;  and  the  regeneration  of  the  primeval 
compartment  form  is  usually  of  the  cleared  compartment  type. 

Obviously,  with  the  beginning  of  logging  operations  the 
"primeval  forms"'  are  gradually,  piece  by  piece,  changed  into  "culled 
forms,"  the  display  of  which  largely  depends  on  vendibility  and  on 
fires. 

Rarelj'  only  the  primeval  forest  enters  at  once  or  directly  into 
a  cultured  form  (Pisgah  Forest  of  the  Biltmore  Estate;  Ne-ha-sa-ne 
park;  government  forests  in  Galizia)  without  passing  through  the 
stage  of  '"'culled  form."  In  the  large  majority  of  cases,  the  primeval 
woods  pass  through  "culled  forms"  into  "cultured  forms,"  in  the 
course  of  generations  of  men  and  of  trees. 

B.  Culled  forms  of  high  forest : 

I.  Characteristic  for  the  culled  forms  of  high  forest  is  the 
absence  of  mature  or  maturing  trees  belonging  to  a  desirable  species ; 
the  preponderance  of  weeds,  unsound  trees,  undesirable  species  and 
of  trees  and  poles  badly  crippled  by  the  logging  operations.  Only 
diseased  trees  or  relatively  small  trees  of  the  desirable  species  are 
left  to  seed  the  ground. 

Advance  growth  is  invariably  spoiled  where  the  trees  are  omni- 
vendible  or  multivendible. 

Characteristic  for  the  culled  forms  is,  further,  the  presence  of 
large  amounts  of  debris  and  of  a  parched  humus. 

As  a  rule,  tlie  culled  forms  show  death  and  scars  due  to  forest 
fires. 

Fi-equently,  the  culled  forest  displays  an  entirely  new  assort- 
ment of  the  species  composing  it,  the  previously  prevailing  species 
having  been  removed  by  logging.  It  is  more  "mobbish"  than  the 
primeval  forest. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  culled  forms  of  high  forest: 

The  culled  forest  is  usually  more  uniform  than  the  primeval 
forest  from  which  it  emanates,  owing  to  the  uniform  character  of 
the  logging  operations.  Still,  the  compartment  form,  group  form  and 
selection  form  originally  exhibited  are  usually  retained. 

In  the  compartment  form  and  in  the  group  form  a  few  worthless 
trees  or  veterans  left  standing  and  continuing  to  live  frequently 
remind  on  the  "form  of  standards  in  high  forest"  or  on  the  "form 
of  underplanted  high  forest."  (Compare  C,  II,  b,  of  the  same  para- 
graph.) 

III.  Treatment  of  the  culled  high  forest : 

Where  fires  are  kept  out,  the  chances  for  seed  regeneration  are 
good — unusually  good — owing  to  the  condition  of  the  seed-bed  and 
to  the  unlimited  food  supply  available  for  the  seedlings. 
139 


SYLVICULTURE 

In  the  case  of  Yellow  Pines,  light  fires  seem  even  helpful  to 
n.  s.  r. 

Since  the  valuable  species  form,  however,  the  minority  amongst 
the  seed-trees,  the  worthless  and  less  valuable  kinds  usually  prevail 
in  the  young  growth  formed  after  culling.  Cleaning  and  weeding 
are  required  to  improve  the  prospects  of  the  minority  composed  of 
noble  species.  Besides,  improvement  cuttings  are  indicated  in  the 
culled  forms;  "The  culled  form  is  the  form  requiring  improvement 
cuttings." 

Tlie  "aristocrats'"  frequently  return  only  to  the  regeneration 
area  after  a  score  or  two  of  years,  the  rash  '•mcb"  then  acting  as 
nurse-trees  or  as  ushers. 

Where  hea\^^  and  extensive  fires  have  swept  the  culled  forest 
originally  consisting  of  exacting  species,  patient  waiting  alone  can 
secure  conditions  more  favorable  to  aristocratic  regeneration.  Fires 
frequently  convert  a  high  forest  of  hardvroods  into  a  coppice  forest. 

The  younger  age-classes  suffer  more  from  fire  than  the  older  age- 
classes.  A  fire-swept,  culled  forest  is  deficient,  at  least  temporarily, 
in  seedlings,  saplings  and  small  poles.  A  few  years  after  a  fire,  the 
culled  forest  often  displays  the  features  of  the  underplanted  form  of 
high  forest  (Par.  LXV.  C.  II.  b.)  or  of  the  coppice-under-standard 
■form    (Par.   LXXIII). 

C.  Cidtured  forms  of  high  forest: 

I.  Characteristic  for  the  cultured  forms  of  high  forest  is  great 
uniformity;  lack  of  hypermature,  unsound  and  misshapen  aristo- 
crats; lack  of  weed-trees;  lack  of  coppice  shoots;  complete  cover 
overhead;  multi-  or  omni  vendil>ility ;  permanent  means  of  transpota- 
tion. 

The  cultured  forest  does  not  require  weeding  or  improvement 
cuttings  for  the  reason  that  cleanings  and  early  thinnings  have  pre- 
sented the  development  of  weed-trees  and  wolf-trees,  whilst  the 
hypermature  veteran  has  been  removed  long  ago. 

If  the  culled  form  is  "the  form  of  improvement  cuttings",  the 
cultured  form  might  be  termed  "the  form  of  thinnings". 

II.  Subdivisions  of  cultured  high  forest: 
a.  Main  cultured  forms  of  high  forest: 

1.  Even-aged  cultured  forms,  when  the  age-classes  mixed  within 
a  compartment  differ  by  up  to  25  years. 

aa.  Form  emanating  from  the  cleared  compartment  type  of 
n.   s.   r. 

bb.  Form  emanating  from  the  short-time  shelterwood  compart- 
ment type  of  n.  s.  r.,  the  periods  of  regeneration  not  exceeding  25 
years. 

140 


SYLVICULTURE 

cc.  Form  raised  by  planting  seeds  or  seedlings  over  whole 
compartments. 

dd.  Form  raised  by  underplanting  seeds  or  seedlings  over 
whole  compartments,  followed  by  (gradual)  removal  of  the  super- 
structing  trees  within  less  than  25  years. 

2.  Uneven-aged  cultured  forms,  when  the  age-classes  mixed 
within  a  compartment  differ  by  over  25  years. 

aa.  Form  emanating  from  the  long-time-shelterwood  compart- 
ment type   of  n.   s.   r. 

bb.  Form  emanating  from  strip  types,  either  restocked  by  n.  s.  r. 
or  by  planting. 

cc.  Form  emanating  from  group  types  of  n.  s.  r.,  or  from  planted 
groups. 

dd.  Form  emanating  from  selection  types  of  n.  s.  r. 

b.  Auxiliary  cultured  forms  of  high  forest: 

aa.  Form  of  standards  in  high  forest,  when  a  limited  number 
of  trees  are  left  to  grow  amongst  and  with  the  j'oung  growth  for  a 
longer   or   shorter  number  of  years. 

The  standards  might  be  left  either  in  scattering  groups  or  in- 
dividually scattered  over  the  second  growth.  In  the  latter  case, 
only  storm-firm  species  will  answer.  It  is  wise  to  leave  the  standards 
in  the  proximity  of  roads  so  as  to  allow  their  removal  without  in- 
flicting damage  on  the  young  growth.  Species  well  adapted  for 
standards  are:  Yellow  Pines,  Larches,  White  Oaks,  Y^ellow  Poplar, 
Black  Locust,  Hickory,  Walnut,  Black  Cherry.  Shade-bearers  and 
flat-rooted  species  will  not  answer  the  purpose. 

It  is  unwise  to  leave  standards  unprepared  by  preceding  cuttings 
for  the  life  in  the  open.  Standards  set  suddenly  free  will  cover 
themselves  rapidly  with  adventitious  branches,  will  grow  stag- 
headed,  will  suffer  from  storm  and  sleet,  and  will  die  without  yield- 
ing the  results  for  which  they  were  left. 

Where  the  standards  shade  the  young  growth  too  badly,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  remove  their  lower  live  branches. 

The  number  of  standards  left  per  acre  does  not  usually  exceed 
25.  Very  good  soil  and  short  rotations  allow  of  an  increased  number. 
Standards  may  be,  but  need  not  be,  of  the  same  species  which  forms 
the  undergrowth. 

Where  the  standards  do  not  belong,  approximately,  to  one  and 
the  same  age-class,  there  the  standard  form  bastardizes  with  the 
uneven-aged  forms  emanating  from  the  group-type  or  from  the 
selection  type  of  n.  s.  r. 

bb.  Form    of    two-storied    high    forest,    when    an    upper    and    a 
lower  leaf  canopy  is  maintained  in  distinctly  separate  tiers. 
141 


SYLVICULTURE 

Species  adapted  to  form  the  lower  leaf  canopy  are:  Beech, 
Hard  Maple,  Black  Gum,  Firs,  Hemlocks.  The  species  in  the  upper 
story  had  better  have  a  light-demanding  character.  The  form  is 
created  by  raising  a  polewood  (even-aged)  of  Yellow  Pine,  Oak, 
Hickory,  Larch,  etc.;  by  early  and  hea^'J'  thinnings  from  below;  by 
very  hea\y  thinnings  after  the  completion  of  the  principal  height 
growth  (year  forty  to  sixty) ;  and  by  planting  at  the  same  time  either 
seeds  or  preferably  seedlings  of  shade-bearing  species.  Should  the 
undergrowth  catch  up  with  the  upper  growth,  either  the  one  or  the 
other  must  be  removed.  The  undergrowth  preserves  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  by  thorough  shading,  by  the  formation  of  a  mixed  humus 
and  by  increased  leaf-fall.  It  improves  the  bole-quality  of  the 
upper  growth,  the  crowns  of  the  lower  growth  holding  the  boles  of 
the  upper  in  close  embrace.  In  addition,  it  prevents  any  part  of  the 
timber-producing  factors  of  the  locality  (atmosphere,  light,  moisture, 
soil)  from  lying  unutilized.  Usually  the  undergrowth  produces  fire- 
wood, the  upper  growth  timber. 

The  so-called  "Seebach's  modified  high  forest"  has  Beech  in  the 
upper  as  well  as  in  the  lower  story.  The  lower  story  is  obtained 
from  self-sown  seed  of  the  upper  story  after  very  heavy  thinning. 
Under  and  upper  growth  are  finally  utilized  in  the  same  year  or  in 
the  same  period  of  years. 

in.  Treatment  of  cultured  high   forest. 

Regeneration  in  the  cultured  form  of  high  forest  takes  place  in 
any  of  the  types  of  n.  s.  r.,  or  by  planting  seeds  and  seedlings.  As  a 
rule,  natural  regeneration  is  now  combined  with  partial  planting. 
Cleaning  and  thinning  are  usually  indicated,  whilst,  as  stated,  weed- 
ing and  improvement  cutting  are  not  required. 

Paragraph  LXVI.     Critical  remarks  on  the  forms  of  high  forest. 

A.  Attitude  of  the  investor: 

It  is  almost  amusing  to  observe  the  difference  of  attitudes  which 
the  statesman,  the  lumberman  and  the  forester  show  with  respect 
to  the  terms  "primeval",  "culled"  and  "cultured"  forests. 

Still,  all  of  these  forests  are  justifiable,  at  least  temporarily, 
and  usually  justified  by  tne  economic  conditions  evolving  them. 

I.  The  primeval  forest  seems  to  be  the  "  forest  in  economic 
stagnation."  Still,  fortunes  have  been  carved  by  many  investors, 
buying  and  retaining  primeval  forests  for  their  own  benefit  and 
incidentally  for  the  benefit  of  later  generations  of  men.  With  every 
parcel  of  primeval  forest  destroyed,  the  value  of  the  balance  left 
increases  in  estimation  and  in  actual  usefulness. 

U2 


SYLVICULTURE 

Sylviculturally.  no  forest  requires  a  more  minute  and  more 
painstaking  treatment  than  the  primeval  forest,  when  its  conversion 
into  cultured  forest  is  at  stake.  Still,  the  small  price  obtainable  for 
its  products  defies  any  attempt  at  a  remunerative  outcome  of  heavy 
sylvicnltural  outlays.  What  is  the  use  of  safeguarding  or  producing 
a  second  growth,  by  sylvicnltural  acts,  which  is  devoid  of  any  pros- 
pective value,  or  which  is  of  a  value  inferior  to  the  expense  re- 
quired to  safeguard  it  or  to  produce  it? 

Thus,  sylviculturally  as  well  as  financially  it  seems  very  fre- 
quently best  to  leave  the  primeval  wood  unattended,  unregenerated, 
unconverted,  for  the  time  being. 

II.  Tlie  culled  forest  usually  exists  in  localities  where  timber 
has  a  higher  value  than  in  the  primeval  backwoods. 

Indeed,  where  the  culling  of  the  forest  has  made  great  progress 
in  a  state  or  in  a  county,  there  the  culled  forest  is  getting  rapidly 
ripe  for  sylvicnltural  treatment. 

Heavy  culling  merely  proves  a  high  range  of  stumpage  prices, 
fostered  by  a  near-by  market  and  by  good  means  of  transportation. 

Where  the  forest  has  been  culled  only  of  decidedly  mature 
trees,  there  the  chances  for  good  results  are  bright,  financially  as 
well  as  sylviculturally. 

The  attitude  which  the  owner  of  culled  forests  adopts  towards 
sylvicnltural  investments,  necessarily  depends  on  a  diagnosis  of  the 
future   of   the   lumber   industry   appeiiling   to   him. 

III.  The  cultured  forest  is  still  a  rarity  in  tne  United  States, 
and  will  continue  to  be  a  rarity  during  our  lifetime. 

Imagine  for  a  moment,  that  the  famous  Black  forest  of  Germany 
were  suddenly  transferred,  with  its  fine  Spruce  woods,  its  splendid 
roads  and  its  skilled  laborers,  into  the  heart  of  the  Adirondacks! 
Would  it  be  wise,  financially,  to  continue  its  sylvicultural  treat- 
ment as  inaugurated  in  Germany? 

It  certainly  would;  the  logs  salable  in  the  Black  Forest  are 
also  salable  in  the  Adirondacks  at  a  good  profit.  And  a  network  of 
splendid  roads  would  tend  to  cheapen  transportation  by  exactly 
that  many  cents  per  standard,  which  the  stumpage  itself  would  gain 
per  standard. 

On  the  other  hand,  that  same  Black  Forest  transferred  to  the 
Pacific  coast — say  into  tlie  Olympic  mountains — Avould  certainly 
prove  a  financial  and  therefore  a  sj'lvicultural  failure. 

The  better  it  pays  to  cull  the  forest,  the  closer  at  hand  is  the 
time  of  the  cultured  forest. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind,  however,  that  the  change  from  the 
culled  to  the  cultured  forest  requires,  aside  from  a  market  for  the 
143 


SYLVICULTURE 

products  obtained  and  from  tlie  willingness  of  the  owner  to  embark 
in  sylvicultiiral  investments, 

a.  Investments  in  permanent  means  of  transportation; 

b.  Relative  safety  from  forest  fires; 

c.  Time. 

^\■herever  the  woods  emerge  in  a  decrepit  condition  from  the 
primeval  stage  after  reckless  lumbering,  hea\'y  fires,  unlimited 
pasturage,  there  the  adoption  of  a  system  will  be  found  necessary 
after  scores  of  years  breaking  entirely  with  the  past  and  raising, 
after  thorough  destruction  of  the  past  growth,  by  artificial  means 
a   new  crop  of  valuable  species. 

Large,  continuous  clearings  badly  resist  reforestation  like  the 
prairies,  although  on  a  smaller  scale.  Extensive,  even-aged  woods 
form  '"incubators"  for  disastrous  diseases;  suffer  from  snow,  storm, 
drought,  and  fi'ost.  On  the  other  hand,  their  management  is  greatly 
facilitated,  so  that  reinforcing,  cleaning,  thinning,  regeneration  and 
utilization   are   much   cheapened. 

B.  Selection  of  form  by  the  forester. 

I.  The  primeval  forms  of  high  forest  found  by  the  forester 
usually  appear  unretainable.  Whatever  the  case  be,  the  first  stroke 
of  the  axe  is  sure  to  remove  the  mature  and  hypcrmature  trees,  the 
preponderance  of  w^hich  belongs  to  the  character  of  any  primeval 
form. 

However,  when  transforming  primeval  woods  into  cultured 
woods,  the  forester  should  endeavor  to  retain  as  much  as  possible 
the  form  originally  sanctioned  by  nature.  Such  retention  is  the 
safest  way  to  sylvicultural  success.  Still,  it  usually  necessitates 
heavy  investments  for  permanent  means  of  transportation,  and  where 
the  owner  is  unwilling  to  make  them,  cuttings  by  compartments  or 
by  strips  are  required,  wdiich  in  turn  lead  to  the  adoption  of  the  ad- 
vance growth  type,  shelterwood  type,  or  cleared  type  of  n.  s.  r. 

The  strip  form,  as  mentioned  elsewhere,  seems  to  be  particu- 
larly well  adapted  to  meet  American  needs. 

II.  Tlie  culled  forms  of  high  forest  must  be  retained  by  the 
forester  in  the  compartment,  group  or  selection  form  first  en- 
countered, unless  the  culling  has  been  particularly  light.  Improve- 
ment cuttings  are  not  apt  to  change  the  form  of  the  forest.  Where 
artificial  reinforcing  is  resorted  to,  the  forest  will  gradually  develop 
even-aged  forms.  When  after  heavy  culling  the  average  growing 
stock  per  acre  is  badly  reduced,  then  forms  allowing  of  short  rota- 
tions are  indicated,  so  especially  selection  forms  and  standard  forms. 
Frequently  in  such  cases,  the  high  forest  is  abandoned,  and  the 
coppice  forest  is  resorted  to. 

144 


SYLVICULTURE 

III.  In  the  cultured  forms,  the  trend  of  tlie  times  favors  un- 
even-aged forms,  notably  mixed  group  forms  and  narrow  strip  forms, 
on  account  of  greater  safety. 

Heavy  "  thinnings  from  above "  are  in  vogue,  frequently  in 
connection  with  underplanting  (or  underseeding  by  n.  s.  r.) 

Regeneration  is  effected  either  by  planting  compartments,  strips 
and  groups,  with  or  without  a  shelterwood  overhead,  or  by  the  various 
types  of  n.  s.  r. 

Where  the  deficiency  of  the  growing  stock  leads  to  the  adoption  of 
slioi't  ]-otations,  standard  forms,  two-storied  forms,  underplanted 
forms  or  coppiee-under-standard  forms  must  be  resorted  to.  In  the 
litter  case,  of  course,  the  liigh  forest  form  is  thrown  overboard. 

Paragraph  LXVII.     High  Forest  by  Species. 

A.  Oaks:     The  Oaks  rarely  appear  in  pure  stands. 

I.  Primeval  woods.     The  primeval  high  forest  exhibits  the  Oak: 

a.  As  the  lower  story  planted  in  groups  or  compartments  under- 
neath an  upper  story  of  Long-leaf  Pine,  Loblolly  Pine,  Short-leaf 
Pine: 

b.  In  small  pure  groups  sprinkled  amongst  the  Bald  Cypress 
and  Red  Gum  of  the  southern  hummocks; 

c.  In  the  selection  form  grafted  upon  compartments  of  high  forest 
of  other  hardwoods,  notably  of  Chestnut,  Hickory,  Gum  (Ten.)  ;  or 
grafted  on  compartments  of  Kalmia,  Rhododendron,  Chinquapin 
"(X.  C). 

d.  In  pure  even-aged  groups    ( prairie  borders ) . 

e.  In  selection  forests  mixed  with  many  other  hardwoods  also 
in  selection  form. 

II.  Culled  high  forests:  The  cull-ed  forest  of  oak  is  usually  axe- 
culled  as  well  as  fire-culled,  thus  partly  losing  its  character  as  a 
high  forest. 

The  n.  s.  r.  of  ^^  hite  Oak,  Chestnut  Oak  and  Scarlet  Oak  at 
Biltmore  proceeds  selectionwise  or  in  compartments,  notably  so  on 
Indian  fields  in  the  Pink-beds;  underneath  Chestnut,  Maples,  and 
Oaks  on  Poplar  hill;  mixed  with  Hickory  on  the  lower  west  slope 
of  Averys  creek  and  so  on. 

The  Oaks  endure  shade  well  for  a  long  number  of  years,  trailing 
on  the  ground  until  freed  from  superstructure.  Coccinea  three 
years  old  is  only  five  inches  high,  being  clipped  back  continuously  by 
insufficient   lignification  of  its  top-shoots. 

Even-aged  polewoods  of  Oak  are  found  all  over  the  Blue  Ridge 
and   the  Piedmont   Plateau.      Examination  will   usually  prove  them 

145 


SYLVICULTURE 

to  be  lire-culled  copiMce  formed  by  the  tire-killed,  younger  age  classes 
of  primeval  woods    (seedlings,  saplings  and  small  poles). 

III.  Cultured  high  forests. 

The  cultured  high  forest  at  Biltmore  is  still  in  statu  nascendi, 
in  the  plantations  on  abandoned  fields  as  well  as  in  the  n.  s.  r.'s  of 
comp.  102  (compartment  type),  the  slopes  of  Ducker  Mountain,  etc. 
The  growth  of  the  Oaks  during  early  youth  is  very  slow.  The  soil 
is  usually  so  badly  hardened  as  to  require  artificial  help  to  n.  s.  r. 
Oak  seedlings  and  saplings  are  rare  in  Pisgah  Forest  (excepting  3- 
year-old  Scarlet  Oaks). 

The  Oaks  mingle  with  the  Short-leaf  Pine  everywhere  as  an  un- 
dergrowth started  by  n.  s.  r.,  or  as  a  companion-growth  in  Pine  pole- 
woods.  Here  too,  however,  the  fires  have  usually  converted  seedlings 
and  saplings  into  stoolshoots. 

In  the  S.  E.,  regeneration  under  shelterwood  or  in  advance  of 
logging  (by  the  group  type  or  by  the  compartment  type)  seems  ad- 
visable. In  the  mixture  with  the  Oaks  should  be  encouraged :  Maples, 
Black  Gums,  Pines  (White  Pine  grows  and  retains  its  branches  for 
a  long  time  in  the  mixture),  Chestnut,  Hickory,  Walnut. 

Record  of  seed  years  at  Biltmore: 

AVhite  Oakr^good  in   1899. 

Post  Oak:  in  1900  the  only  mast-bearing  oak. 

Black  Oak:   splendid,  full  mast  year  in  1901  in  all  situations. 

Spanish  Oak:   splendid,  fiill  mast  year  in  1901. 

Chestnut  Oak:  promises  well  in  1904. 

B.  Chestnuts: 

I.  Primeval  forests: 

Actually  primeval  forests  of  Chestnut  seem  very  rare.  The 
Chestnut  woods  of  the  xVppalachians  have  been  ransacked  by  fires 
for  many  decades  of  years.  The  n.  s.  r.  seems  to  have  been  of  the 
selection  type.  Chestnut  seems  to  avoid  limestone-soil  and  ceases  to 
occur  where  limestone  appears   (Ky;  Ten.). 

II.  Culled  high  forests: 

The  fire-culled  forest  shows  an  absolute  lack  of  seedlings,  sap- 
lings and  poles. 

The  axecuUed   forest  consists  merely  of  coppice. 

Trees  beset  with  dead  branches  are  invariably  wormy  (Lymexy- 
lon). 

Seed  years  seem  to  he  getting  scarce,  possibly  under  the  influence 
of  fires,  to  judge  from  the  reports  of,  mountaineers.  The  old  trees 
are  fre^  ently  stagheaded  and  fail  to  successfully  regenerate  their 
kind. 

140 


SYLVICULTURE 

Seedlings  one  year  old  are  about  eight  inches  high,  when  found 
in  tlie  woods.    They  appear  individually  scattering  and  not  in  groups. 
IIL  Cultured  high  forests: 

The  cultured  forest  usually  has  the  form  of  coppice  or  coppice- 
under-standards.  Plantations  in  the  United  States  are  made  more 
for  fruit-growing  than  for  timber-growing.  The  abandoned  fields  at 
BiltnloVe  seem  too  dry  for  successful  development.  Chestnuts 
planted  as  an  undergro^vth  below  Oak  and  Pine  have  done  poorly, 
owing  to  the  ravages  of  squirrels. 

The  poles  and  trees  seem  to  badly  resent  any  sudden  interference 
with  the  leaf  canopy  and  with  the  humus. 

Thinnings  and  cuttings  in  the  shelterwood  system  should  be  light. 
The  competition  of  stoolshoots  invariably  formed  after  cuttings 
reduces  the  prospects  of  seedlings  simultaneously  obtained.  Stool- 
shoots  cannot  be  entirely  prevented  by  deadening  previous  to  cutting. 
Chestnut  produces  a  splendid  humus  and  is  an  excellent  com- 
panion for  Oaks,  Hickories,  Walnut,  Black  Cherry,  Ash  and  Yellow 
Poplar;  also  for  White  Pine  and  Hemlock.  It  regenerates  in  mixture 
with  Yellow  Poplar  on  small  abandoned  fields  of  Pisgah  Forest  to  a 
limited  degree. 

Seed  years:    Fairly  good  mast  in  1898. 

On  the  mountain  tops,  wheie  Chestnut  stands  in  an  orchard-like 
position,  seed  occurs  annually. 
C.  Hickories: 

I.  Primeval  forest:  The  Hickories  appear  legenerated  in  the 
selection  type  and  in  the  group  type. 

II.  Culled  high  forest:  The  Hickories  suff'er  badly  from  fires. 
Fires  do  not  kill  the  poles,  but  cause  the  butts  to  burst  subjecting 
them  to  decay.  Weeding  and  heavy  improvement  cuttings  are  bene- 
ficial. 

III.  Cultured  high  forest : 

From  the  early  pole  stage  on,  the  crowns  should  be  placed  in 
a  free  position  so  as  to  cause  the  formation  of  wide  rings. 

At  Biltmore,  the  boles  are  apt  to  be  very  branchy,  the  tough 
limbs  being  very  persistent. 

In  the  mountains,  on  stronger  soil,  the  boles  clear  themselves 
readily. 

The  Hickories  regenerate  by  n.  s.  r.  in  abandoned  fields  in  mix- 
ture with  Black  Gum,  Sassafras,  Yellow  Poplar,  Locust,  Oaks,  etc. 

In  the  plantations  on  abandoned  fields  at  Biltmore,  Bitternut 
alone  promises  to  be  successful.  The  other  species  are  badly  handi- 
capped by  rodents  and  seem  to  be  of  very  slow  growth. 

The  Hickories  seem  to  be  immune  from  damage  by  frost  in  their 
native  country;  not  so  in  Germany. 
147 


SYLVICULTURE 

Seed  years  ai-e  not  of  record. 

D.  Walnuts: 

T.  Primeval  forests : 

The  Walnuts  appear  in  the  primeval  woods  invariably  in  mix- 
tuie  M  ith  other  species,  on  strong  soil,  seemingly  regenerated  by  the 
selection  type. 

II.  Culled  high  forests:     ' 

The  ^N'alnuts  seem  remarkably  fireproof  from  the  early  pole  stage 
on.  Seed  regeneration  is  rare  in  the  woods,  mit  mor^  frequent  on  old 
deadenings  close  to  habitations,  where  the  squirrels  were  held  in 
check. 

II).  Cultured  high  forests: 

^Mthout  artificial  help,  n.  s.  r.  seems  very  problematic.  Under 
any  circumstances,  the  rodents  must  be  kept  off. 

Plantations  are  frequently  found  and  do  very  well. in  early  youtli, 
unless'  the  soil  is  badly  hardened  and  impoverished.  The  stands 
should  be  dense,  whether  pure  or  mixed  with  Oaks  etc.,  so  as  to 
produce  clean  boles.  Plantations  seem  to  fail  in  the  close  proximity 
of  old  trees. 

The  plantations  at  Biltmore  have  failed  invariably  in  the  woods, 
owing  to  the  ravages  of .  squirrels :  toungya  on  leased  farms  shows 
poor  success,  owing  to  the  unreliability  of  the  lessees;  plantations  of 
seedlings  three  years  old  failed  badly;  plantations  of  yearlings  freeze 
to  the  ground  annually  on  all  slopes;  plantations  of  nuts  on  small 
fields  have  done  very  well,  where  the  ground  was  good;  and  the 
change  from  good  to -bad,  brought  about  by  the  undulations  of  the 
soil,  is  very  marked.  Failures  on  poor  soil  are  now  doctored  up  by  a 
nursegrowth  of  Yellow  Pines, — a  remedy  promising  some  success. 

E.  Beech: 

I.  The  primeval  forest  exhibits  the  compartment,  group  and  se- 
lection type  of  n.  s.  r.  The  humus  is  usually  very  heaA^  and  so  moist 
that  fires  have  a  poor  chance  to  spread.  In  the  South,  at  lower  alti- 
tudes, Beech  merely  fringes  the  river  banks. 

II.  The  culled  high  forest  shows  many  stump  sprouts,  stumps 
tliree  feet  high  forming  the  sprouts  on  the  top  of  the  stump. 

In  the  Blue  Grass  Region,  huge  park  trees  are  frequently  found  in 
a  dense  undergrowth  of  seedlings  and  saplings."  Here  the  more  valu- 
able species  have  been  culled  out  many  years  ago,  and  the  Beech  is 
left  in  exclusive  possession  of  the  soil. 

III.  The  cultured  high  forests  of  Beech  are  easily  regenerated  in 
the  shelterwood-compartment  type.  The  selection  type  yields  branchy 
boles.     Beech  is   the  best   companion  imaginable   for   faster-growing 


148 


SYLVICULTURE 

species;  is  siilendiclly  qualified  for  an  underwood  planted  beneath 
aristocratic  species;' is  exacting  and  sensitive. 

Plantations  on  abandoned  fields  are  out  of  the  question,  except 
at  high  akitudes. 

No  seed  years  are  of  record  at  Biltniore.'  The  trees  on  the  river 
banks  fruit  aimually. 

F.  Basswood: 

I.  Primeval  forests : 

In  the  Lakf^  States  ai^id  in  the  Alleghanies,  Basswood  exhibits  the 
form  emanating  from  the  selection  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  grafted  on  the 
compartment  type  of  White  Pine  or  of  Hard  Maple,  or  else  mixed 
with  Hard  iJaple,  Elm,  Chestnut,  Bed  Oak,  Yellow  Poplar. 

II.  Culli>d  high  forests : 

The  regeneration  follows  the  selectipn  type;  fires  clip  the  seed- 
lings and  saplings;  larger  poles  afad  trees  seem  to  withstand  well. 

III.  Cultured  high  forests: 

Young  seedlings  develop  very  slowly;  they  are  less  sensitive  than 
their  shade-en4urance  would  indfcate.  Pure  forests  are  found  only 
in  Russia. 

Seedlings  planted  at  Biltmore  on  old  fields,  of  strong  qualities, 
have  hesitated  to  develop  for  six  years,  growing  biishj^  and  crooked ; 
in  1904,  they  promise  good  results. 

Linden  underplanted  below  Oaks  and  Chestnuts  after  moderate 
thinning  on  North  slopes  seems  to  answer  admirably,  forming  long 
and  straight,  although  overhanging  topshoots. 

Seedyears  in  Pisgah  Forest  occur  annually.  The  majority  of  the 
seeds,  however,  seem  to  drop  immature. 

G.  Y^ellow  Poplar: 

I.  Primeval  forests: 

Y'ellow  Poplar  appears  invariably  in  the  selection  type,  or  in  the 
form  of  standai'ds. 

II.  Culled  high  forests: 

The  species  attempts  unceasingly  to  propagate  its  kind  by 
n.  s.  r.  The  heavier  the  destruction  by  the  axe,  the  better  are  its 
chances  for  success.  Fires,  on  the  other  hand,  annihilate  the  seed- 
lings and  check  the  chances  for  regeneration  thereafter,  owing  to  a 
rank  growth  of  weeds  following  the  fires.  In  Pisgah  Forest,  seed- 
lings and  saplings  were  entirely  lacking,  until"  fires  were  stopped. 

The  regeneration  on  old  fields,  on  the  other  hand,  is  prolific  and 
easy.  Cattle  press  the  seeds  into  the  ground  and  check  the  com- 
peting weeds.  Sassafras,  Locust  and  Pine  fret[uently  act  as  ushers. 
The  old  fields  are  usually  protected  from  fire  by  the  owners  .wishing 
to  protect   their  fences. 

149  ** 


SYLVICULTURE 

Xo  known  species  prunes  itself  as  ie;ulily  from  branches  as 
Yellow  Poplar,  the  dead  branches  pcpiiing  otl'  without  leaving  any 
stumps. 

III.  Cultured  high  forests: 

Xo  species  at  Biltmore  -is  as  easily  regenerated  by  n.  s.  r,  as 
Y'ellow  Poplar.  In  Biltmore  Forest,  the  group  type  is  readily  carried 
through  with  the  help  of  three  or  four  mother-trees  to  the  acre.  The 
other  companions  of  the  mother-trees,  notably  Oaks  and  Chestnuts, 
are  gradvially  cut  away ;  spreading  Dogwoods  are  deadened  to  prevent 
them  from  forming  stoolshoots.  i 

In  Pisgah  Forest,  regeneration  is  helped  by  preceding  pasturage 
(especially  in  early  spring,  before  the  seeds  of  Poplar  germinate)  and 
by  weeding  following  in  the  wake  of  n.  s.  r. 

The  seeds  will  never  sprout  in  the  humus;  seedlings  born  late  in 
.spring  (June)  and  showing  the  cotyledons  still  in  September  are 
sure  to  be  killed  by  frost;  also  seedlings  growing  in  the  shade  of 
weeds.  The  logging  roads  and  log  yards  are  real  "nurseries"  for 
Poplar.     On  steep  ground,  the  seedlings  are  washed  out  by  the  rain. 

The  growth  is  very  fast. 

Seed  years  are  annual;  hollow  trees  are  likely  to  furnish  very 
poor  seeds. 

Plantations  of  3-year-olds  at  Biltmore  on  poor  old  fields  did 
badly;  on  good  soil,  especially  where  a  volunteer  growth  of  Locust 
has  joined  the  plants,  the  success  is  complete. 

H.  Maples: 

I.  Primeval  forests: 

Here  the  regeneration  follows  the  compartment  type  (Adiron- 
dacks,  Missouri  valley),  the  group  type  and  the  selection  type 
(Biltmore,  Northern  Minnesota).  Maple  usually  appears  in  mixture 
with  other  hardwoods,  with  Spruce  and  White  Pine.  Soft  Maple 
occurs  in  low^  moist  sites  as  well  as  on  dry  ridges.  Hard  Maple 
demands  well-drained  and  strong  soil,  preferring  Northern  aspects. 

II.  Culled  high    forests: 

After  culling,  the  younger  stages  of  Maple  are  usually  left  in 
possession  and  develop  in  dense  thickets,  preventing  more  valuable 
species  from  establishing  themselves.  In  the  Adirondacks,  Soft 
Maple  is  frequently  found  on  Spruceflats  after  windfalls  (associated 
with  Y'elloAV  Birch). 

III.  Cultured  high  forests: 

Dr.    Fernow    at   Axton   succeeded   in   establishinii-.    in    phu-es,    a 
splendid  regeneration  obtained  from  advance  growtli  n.  s.  r.  of  the 
compartment  type,  removing  the  parents  at  one  stroke.     In  Europe, 
the  shelterwood  compartment   type  answers  admirably. 
150 


SYLVICULTURE 

Biltmore  Forest  is  deficient  in  Maple.  Still,  Hard  Maple  planted 
on  abandoned  fields,  pure  or  in  mixture  with  White  Pine,  has  done 
admirably,  excepting  dry  S.  W.  slopes,  dry  spurs,  and  very  moist 
river  bottoms. 

In  Pisgah  Forest,  Red  Maple  usually  appears  as  a  weed  over- 
shadowing aristocratic  seedlings. 

I.  Ashes: 

I.  Primeval  forests:  The  Ashes  usually  regenerate  and  stand 
in  patches  or  groups,  occupying  the  moister  sites. 

II.  Culled  high   forests: 

Protected  by  moist  ground,  the  Ashes  stand  a  good  chance  to 
escape  the  fires.  During  early  youth,  the  seedlings  endure  remarkably 
heayy  shade.  Weeding  and  improvement-cuttings  produce  splendid 
results. 

III.  Cultured  high  forests: 

Regeneration  in  the  group  type  is  easy,  if  helped  by  cleaning 
(Duckcr  Mountain  of  Biltmore  Estate)  and  gradual  removal  of  the 
obstructing  trees.  On  old  fields,  on  moist  slopes,  White  Ash  is 
often  accompanied  by  Yellow  Poplar  and  Halesia. 

Plantations  of  3-year-old  (xreen  Ash  have  failed  utterly  at  Bilt- 
more   on   dry,   hard   soil. 

Plantations  of  3-year-oid  White  Ash  in  half -swamps  do  ;very 
well;  also  seed  plantations  on  good  soil  in  the  gaps  of  a  ridge. 

The   early  growth  is  very  fast. 

Seeds  are  profusely  produced  from  the  pole  stage  on. 

J.  Red  Spruce : 

I.  Primeval  forests:  The  primeval  Spruce  woods  appear  as 
more  or  less  even-aged  compartments  in  the  swamps  and  sloughs  of 
the  Lake  States  and  on  the  dry,  shallow  South  slopes  of  New  England ; 
in  the  cleared  group  form  and  in  the  selection  form  in  Wester^  N.  C. 
at  altitudes  exceeding  5,000  feet,  mixed  with  Abies  fraseri  (selec- 
tion) ;  in  the  selection  form,  grafted  upon  compartments  of  Beech  and 
Maple,  on  the  hardwood  slopes  of  the  Adirondacks.  In  the  latter 
case.  Spruce  never  regenerates  in  the  heavy  layer  of  broad-leafed 
humus,  but  selects  invariably  the  half- rotted  corpse  of  a  dead  tree 
for  a  seed-bed. 

II.  Culled  high  forests:  In  slightly  culled  forests  immune  from 
fires,  Red  Spruce  seems  to  reproduce  with  remarkable  ease.  On  fired 
ground,  Birches  and  Cottonwoods  frequently  act  as  ushers.  Its 
persistence  below  an  impenetrable  leaf  canopy  of  Beech  or  Maple  is 
surprising.  I'reed  from  superstructure,  after  long  years  of  suffering, 
it  answers  the  chance  for  rapid  growth  almost  immediately. 

-     1.51 


SYLVICULTURE 

III.  Cultured  high  forests:  Spruce  requires  high  atmospheric 
moisture;  is  satisfied  with  shallow  soil;  can  be  readily  reproduced 
by  u.  s.  r.  as  well  as  by  planting. 

Seed  years:  Prolific  in  North  Carolina  in  fall  190L  The  trees, 
top  hea^y  with  cones,  were  mowed  down  by  storms. 

K.  White    Pine: 

T.  Primeval  forests:  The  White  Pine  of  the  primeval  woods 
appears  in  compartments,  almost  even-aged,  or  in  groups,  either 
pure,  or  with  an  admixture  of  Hard  Maple,  Linden,  Elm,  Yellow 
Birch;  or  in  the  form  of  standards  over  Red  Spruce  and  Balsam;  or 
in  tlie  selection  form,  as  in  the  Calmia  thickets  of  the  Pink-bed 
Swamps.  It  is  llat-rooted,  subject  to  windfalls,  in  the  North  not 
tolerant  of  shade. 

II.  Culled  high  forests:  The  gorgeous  White  Pine  forests  of 
the  Lake  States,  after  culling  followed  by  fires,  are  invariably  sur- 
rendered to  a  shrubbage  of  hardwoods.  Second  growth  is  found  in 
beautiful  groups  underneath  Norway  Pine;  individually  sprinkled 
amongst  Jack  Pine,  Basswood,  Birch,  etc.;  also  on  old  burns  in  ex- 
tensive, even-aged  compartments;  along  roads  and  at  the  edge  of 
clearings;  in  New  England  on  old  fields. 

In  Western  N.  C,  White  Pine  regenerates  readily  on  broom- 
sedge  fields;  in  mixture  with  the  Oaks  on  the  uplands;  in  mixture 
with  Red  Maple  and  Red  Birch  in  the  river  swamps,  etc. 

III.  Cultured  high  forests:  At  Biltmore,  the  n.  s.  r.  of  Wliite 
Pine  started  by  a  few  seed  trees  succeeds  easily  in  the  group  type. 
White  Pines  planted  imder  dense  shelter  require  freeing  soon  (com- 
partment 45).  Individual  trees  are  very  retentive  of  branches. 
Plantations  on  several  hundred  acres  have  done  admirably.  White 
Pine  is  the  easiest  Pine  to  plant  on  old  fields  or  in  groups  in  the 
woods  after  clearing. 

Seed  years  are  frequent  at  Biltmore,  recvirring  at  intervals  of 
two  or  three  years,  f.  i.,  fall  of  1902  and  1904. 

L.  Yellow  Pines: 

I.  Primeval  forests:  The  pure  group  form  (Black-hills)  or 
the  group  form  wedded  with  the  compartment  form  of  Oaks  reaching 
a  lesser  height  than  the  Pines  seem  to  be  typical.  Pine  standards 
are  often  left.  The  compartment  form  of  P.  taeda  is  also  frequent. 
P.  divaricata  and  murrayana  invariably  occur  in  even-aged  compart- 
ments; P.  palustris  and  P.  heterophylla  usually  occur  in  groups. 

IT.  Culled  high  forests: 

The  culled  forest  is  usually  visited  by  fires  which  gradually  con- 
vert  an   undergrowth   of   hardwoods,   where   it   exists,   into   coppice. 
Beneatli  Longleaf  Pine,  this  undergrowth  begins  to  sprout  only  when 
the  mature   Pine   is   removed. 

152 


SYLVICULTURE 

P.  rigida  and  P.  echinata  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter  are 
also  coppiced  (New  Jersey  Pines)  to  a  limited  extent. 

Where  the  pure  high  forest  continues,  fire  has  usually  improved 
the  chances  for  n.  s.  r.  by  preparing  a  ready  seed  bed  and  by  lessening 
the  severity  of  future  fires. 

All  Yellow  Pines  regenerate  prolifically  on  abandoned  fields, 
often  in  stands  which  artificial  planting  could  not  produce  equally 
well. 

111.  Cultured  high  forests: 

The  n.  s.  r.  of  P.  echinata  in  the  Biltmore  woods  creates  nuclei 
for  small  groups  which  are  freed  and  gradually  enlarged.  Heavy 
thinnings  from  the  early  thicket  stage  on  prevent  crowding  in  the 
pole  stage  and  hereby  check  the  chances  for  successful  attacks  by  the 
bark  beetles.  Pruning  100  decidedly  predestined  trees  per  acre  seems 
remunerative  (dead  branches  only)  at  Biltmore. 

Standard  form  of  P.  echinata  seems  indicated  at  Biltmore.  ^ 

All  Yellow  Pines  are  easily  planted  when  one  or  two  years  old 
and  get  along  without  cultivation  on  old  fields.  Heavy  growth  of 
weeds,  on  good  soil,  however,  is  sure  to  smother  them. 

In  pure  and  large  natural  regenerations,  it  is  wise  to  leave  some 
hardwood  standards  with  a  view  to  securing  an  admixture  of  hard- 
wood seedlings  in  due  course  of  time. 

In  mixture  with  ^\hite  Pine,  Yellow  Pine  is  soon  subdued  on  good 
soil,  while  it  retains  the  lead  on  poor  soil. 

Seed  years  of  Pinus  echinata  at  Biltmore  occur  every  seven 
years.  The  fall  of  1902  was  a  prolific  breeder  of  seeds  even  in  pole- 
woods  .35  years  old    (Walker-nursery  at  Biltmore). 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE    COPPICE    FOREST. 
Paragraph  LXVIII.     Genesis  of  the  coppice  forest  and  its  methods. 

The  coppice  forest  is  either  the  result  of  stump-shoots  or  is 
obtained  from  rootsuckers,  layers  and  cuttings. 

A.  Stumpshoots   (or  stoolshoots  or  coppice  shoots). 

I.  Species:  All  hardwoods  whilst  young  form  stump  shoots  when 
cut  just  above  the  callus.  Amongst  the  softwoods,  the  Sequoias  ex- 
hibit enormous  stump  sprouts.  Amongst  the  Yellow  Pines,  P.  rigida 
and  echinata,  after  F.  E.  Olmsted  also  P.  taeda,  are  capable  of  de- 
veloping sprouts  from  stumps  measuring  less  than  six  inches  in 
diameter.  White  Pines,  Spruces,  Firs,  Larches,  Hemlocks,  etc., 
never  form  cop]nce  shoots. 

15.3 


SYLVICULTURE 

II.  Diameter :  The  sprouting  capacity  rapidly  decreases,  usually, 
with  increasing  diameter  of  the  stump.  The  diameter  at  which  the 
principal  height  growth  is  completed  usually  denotes  the  limit  per- 
missible for  coppice  rotations.  This  rule  is  particularly  well  illus- 
trated by  the  behavior  of  Yellow  Pine,  Birch,  Maple,  Yellow  Poplar, 
Oaks,  Plickories,  etc.  Chestnut  and  Sequoia  do  not  seem  to  follow 
the  rule. 

III.  Soil:  Good  soil  allows  big  stumps  otherwise  unproductiAe 
of  sprouts  to  form  stool  shoots. 

Good  soil  produces  stronger,  but  less  sprouts  than  poor  soil. 

IV.  Life  of  stumps:  The  life  and  hence  the  sprouting  capacity 
of  stumps  repeatedly  coppiced  is  closely  connected  with  the  resistance 
offered  by  the  timber  to  decay.  White  Oak,  Chestnut,  Sequoia  and 
Locust  are  perseverant  sprouters,  the  scars  on  the  stump  being 
protected  from  rotting  by  the  antiseptic'  qualities  of  the  substances 
incrustating  the  heart  wood. 

The  reproductive  power  of  Birch,  Beech,  and  Maple  is  not  sus- 
tained for  a  long  time.    Ash  and  Basswood  show  greater  perseverance. 

It  might  be  said  that  a  long-lifed  species  is  also  a  perseverant 
sprouter. 

The  sprouting  capacity  is  especially  good  in  species  capable  of 
forming  a  separate  and  detached  root  system  for  the  sprout  inde- 
pendent from  the  mother  stump.  This  is  the  case  in  species  forming 
sprouts  from  the  base  of  the  stump   (at  the  root  collar). 

V.  Optimum  number  of  stumps  per  acre : 

The  optimum  depends  on  the  length  of  the  rotation.  It  is  con- 
sidered to  be:  For  German  Oak  coppice,  rotation  20  years,  2,000 
stumps  per  acre;  for  Osier  culture,  rotation  one  or  two  years,  80,000 
stumps  per  acre. 

VI.  Manner  of  coppicing:  The  use  of  the  axe  is  preferable  to 
that  of  the  saw.  Stumps  should  be  as  low  as  possible,  to  begin  with. 
In  case  of  stumps — notably  Beech  and  Birch — coppiced  a  number  of 
times  it  is  better  to  cut  in  the  new  wood.  The  scar  should  allow  the 
water  to  run  off,  instead  of  collecting  it  like  a  saucer.  The  expense 
of  the  genesis  of  the  coppice  foi-est  is  practically  nil. 

VII.  Season  of  coppicing: 

If  the  wood  must  be  peeled,  the  cut  should  be  made  in  early 
spring.  Late  spring. cutting  subjects  the  new  sprouts  to  early  frosts. 
Coppicing  in  August  is  supposed — for  similar  reasons — to  affect  the 
vitality  of  the  stumps.  Where  the  shoots  are  not  to  be  peeled, 
cutting  in  late  winter  is  best.     Winter  cutting  prevents  the  stumps 

154 


SYLVICULTURE  v 

from  bleeding  and  allows  to  remove  the  product  cut  before  the  ap- 
pearance of  new  shoots  without  injuring  the  stumps. 

Cutting  in  fall  subjects  the  stumps  to  frost-cracks  and  to  bark- 
blistering;  it  causes  the  new  fleshy  shoots  to  appear  early  in  spring, 
at  the  season  of  prevailing  late  frosts. 

Accessibility  of  the  locality  at  the  proposed  season  of  cutting 
and  availability  of  local  labor  further  determine  the  season  of 
cutting. 

VIII.  Reinforcing:  Where  the  number  of  stumps  is  or  becomes 
deficient,  there  the  owner  may  plant  seedlings  or  stump-plants  to 
replenish  the  growing  stock. 

B.  Root  suckers:  Cottonwood,  Willow,  Locust,  Alder,  some 
Elms  and  MAples,  after  European  experience  even  Liriodendron  (?) 
form  root  suckers,  especially  on  porous  soil.  The  suckers  are  in- 
creased by  locally  uncovering  the  surface  roots.  They  might  be 
severed  from  the  stem  and  planted  when  two  or  three  years  old; 
but  this  is  expensive.  Gardeners  often  use  pieces  of  roots,  say  ten 
inches  long  and  finger-thick,  for  propagating  ^road-leaf  species  in 
good  soil.  An  observer  in  F.  and  T.,  May,  1904,  claims  to  have  found 
that  Fir  and  Spruce  in  the  Presidential  Range  of  the  White  Moun- 
tains propagate  their  kind  by  the  natural  and  unaided  formation  of 
suckers  developing  from  long,  horizontal  roots. 

C.  Layers:  A  low,  long  branch  of  a  standing  tree  is  partly 
buried  in  a  trench  one-half  foot  deep,  held  in  place  by  hooks,  pins  or 
stones,  the  end  of  the  branch  protruding  above  ground.  The  branch 
thus  imbedded  forms  roots  and  shoots.  The  latter  are  severed  from 
each  other  a  year  or  two  before  planting  in  the  open. 

Layering  is  a  gardener's  method  only  locally  used  in  parks.  At 
very  high  altitudes,  under  the  influence  of  very  great  atmospheric 
moisture;  the  low  Spruce  branches  naturally  form  roots  and  shoots 
in  a  similar  manner. 

D.  Cuttings:  Willows  and  Poplars  are  usually  propagated  by 
"cuttings,"  viz.:  pieces  of  branches  one  foot  long  and  two  years  old, 
tipped  Avith  a  piece  one  year  old.  The  cuttings  are  inserted  obliquely, 
the  tips  barely  showing  above  ground.  Planting  dagger  or  turning 
plow  are  the  tools  used.  Care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  bark 
from  peeling  off.  It  is  claimed  that  the  constant  use  of  cuttings 
causes  a  deterioration  of  growth.  Cuttings  of  sapling  size  taken  from 
strong  and  long  branches  are  also  planted  in  good  nursery  soil  for  a 
number  of  years  and  planted  in  the  open  ground  after  catching  root. 
Willows  and  Poplars  allow  of  hea\^  trimming.  Among  conifers,  only 
Sequoia  permits  the.  use  of  cuttings.  It  is  claimed  that  Sequoia-chips 
sprout  successfully  in  the  moist  climate  of  the  Coast  Range. 

1.55 


SYLVICULTURE 

Paragraph  LXIX.     Pedagogy  of  the  coppice  forest. 

The  coppice  forest  is  tended  hy  cleaning,  weeding,  and  thinning; 
also  by  improvement  cuttings  and  pruning. 

A.  Cleanings:  To  prevent  undesirable  shoots  from  developing, 
the  stumps  producing  them  must  be  removed.  Stuinps  of  undesirable 
species  (Blackgum,  Hazel,  Alder)  can  be  removed  only. by  digging,  or 
by  heaping  dirt  upon  them,  or  by  firing  heaps  of  debris  placed  on  the 
stumps.  Usually,  it  is  preferable  to  deaden  undesirable  trees  instead 
of  trying  to  prevent  their  stumps  from  forming  sprouts.  In  some 
species,  stumps  three  feet  high  will  form  poor  sprouts,  a  quality 
which  might  be  taken  advantage  of. 

B.  Weeding:  Misshapen  trees  or  poles  of  a  desirable  hardwood 
.species,  cut  level  with  the  ground,  will  at  once  produce  shoots  of 
good  quality.  Poles  badly  damaged  by  fires  should  be  cut  for 
an  increase  of  vitality.  Trees  left  because  worthless  should  be 
deadened,  unless  they  belong  to  the  aristocracy,  or  unless  they  im- 
prove the  good  sprouts  as  well  as  the  soil  in  the  role  of  subordinate 
companions. 

C.  Thinnings:  Thinnings  in  European  coppice  woods  are  rare; 
in  taribark  coppice  they  usually  purport  to  improve  the  quality 
of  the  bark.  Where  made,  the  thinnings  usually  remove  the  weaker 
shoots  of  a  stump  for  the  benefit  of  the  better  and  stronger  shoots. 
The  rotations  of  European  coppice  being  short,  heavy  thinnings  tend 
to  deteriorate  the  quality  (branchiness  and  shape)  of  the  shoots  as 
well  as  of  the  soil ;  and  light  thinnings  are  rarely  remunerative. 

In  America,  coppice  of  Catalpa,  of  Chestnut,  of  Locust  and 
Hickory  may  invite  heavy  thinnings  where  fence  posts,  telephone 
posts,  railroad  ties,  wagonstock,  etc.,  find  a  ready  market. 

In  case  of  Hickory,  thinnings  periodically  removing  the  best 
trees    (fi  la  Borggreve)   might  seem  indi(!ated. 

D.  Improvement  cuttings:  Improvement  cuttings  are  necessary 
in  culled  coppice  forest  emerging  directly  from  primeval  hardwood 
forest  heavily  cut  or  heavily  fired.  Such  forest  is  invariably  en- 
cumbered with  bushy  and  worthless  standards  (if  the  standards  have 
a  value,  "the  forest  belongs  to  the  form  of  coppice  under  standards 
described  in  Par.  LXXIII-Par.  LXXVIIl)  interfering  with  the  de- 
velopment of  the  shoots;  or  with  undesirable  species  left  l)y  the 
logger.     The  mob  frequently  prevails  over  the  aristocrats. 

The  first  final  cut  at  the  end  of  the  first  coppice  rotation  usually 
answers  the  purpose  of  an  improvement  cutting. 

E.  Pruning:  Pruning  is  required  to  prevent  coppice  of  Catalpa, 
Locust  and  Ash  from  forming  forks  or  hea\y  branches.     Naturally, 


SYLVICULTURE 

pruning  is  expensive  and  dangerous  at  the  same  time  since  live 
brandies  are  removed.  The  danger  is  particularly  great  where  the 
rotations  are  long,  the  pruned  stump  shoots  being  left  for  decades  of 
years  after  pruning. 

In  the  pollarding  form,  pruning  or  rather  lopping  obviously 
comprises  the  harvest  of  the  crop. 

Paragraph  LXX.     Key  to  the  forms  of  coppice  forest. 

Although  coppicing  is  called  a  tj-pe  of  natural  regeneration,  it 
is  an  absolutely  unnatural  measure  iiever  adopted  by  primeval 
nature.    Primeval  forms  of  coppice  forest  proper  do  not  exist. 

Species  propagating  their  kind,  at  least  partially,  by  root- 
suckers  frequently  form  rootsucker  forests  closely  resembling  coppice 
forests   proper. 

Chestnuts,  Locusts  and  many  other  hardwoods  broken  down  by 
storm  may  form  natural  sprouts  as  well  from  the  stumps.  Still, 
these  eases  are  probably  so  scattering  as  not  to  deserve  the  name  of 
"form  of  primeval  coppice  forest." 

Thus  there  remain  only  two  large  groups  of  coppice  forests, 
namely  "Culled  Coppice  Forests"  and  "Cultured  Coppice  Forests." 
In  both  cases  we  have  to  deal  only  with  the  large-area  form  or  com- 
partment form  of  coppice. 

Woods  seemingly  consisting  of  uneven-aged  coppice  shoots,  mixed 
in  groups  or  individually,  are  dealt  with  as  "Forms  of  coppice-under- 
standards"  (Par.  LXXIII-Par.  LXXVIII),  unless  the  standards  are 
w^orthless  and  promise  to  remain  worthless. 

A.  Culled  forms  of  coppice: 

Thesio-  forms  emerge  either  directly  from  omnivendible  primeval 
forms,  or  else  have  passed  through  the  intermediate  stage  of  "culled 
coppice  under  standards." 

T.  Characteristic  for  culled  coppice  is: 

An  even  display  of  growth. 

A  surprising  density  of  stand. 

The  presence  of  some  weathered  and  worthless  snags  and  stumps 
protruding  from  the  even  sea  of  coppice. 

II.  Subdivisions   of  culled  coppice: 

Uniformity  being  characteristic  for  culled  coppice,  sub-forms  can 
scarcely  be  singled  out,  unless  the  means  of  coppicing— fire  or  axe — 
serve  as  a  criterion.     Hence  there  might  be  distinguished 

a.  The  form  of  fire — culled  coppice,  and 

b.  The  form  of  axe — culled  coppice. 

This  distinction  is  not  made  on  the  basis  of  different  display; 
but  on  the  basis  of  difference  in  treatment  required  by  the  two  forms. 

157 


SYLVICULTURE 

IIL  Treatment  of  culled  coppice: 

The  culled  coppice  is  regenerated  by  being  coppiced  anew.  In 
the  case  of  iire-culled  coppice,  it  is  wise  to  delay  the  second  cut  as 
little  as  possible. 

Coppicing  in  patches  or  small  groups  is  not  advisable,  the  young 
shoots  requiring  all  the  light  available  for  rapid  lignification. 

An  insufficient  number  of  stumps  may  call  for  artificial  re- 
inforcing. 

Improvement  cuttings  convert  poor  coppice  shoots  interfering 
with  their  neighbors  from  above  into  healthy  coppice  shoots  pressing 
their  neighbors  helpfully  from  below. 

B.  Cultured  forms  of  coppice: 

No  form  of  cultured  forest  can  be  obtained  more  easily  and  more 
cheaply  than  the  form  of  cultured  coppice. 

In  the  European  hardwood  forests,  the  cultured  coppice  of  the 
past  has  often  served  aa  the  forerunner  of  the  cultured  high  forest  of 
the  present  sylvan  era. 

I.  Characteristic  for  cultured  coppice  is  an  even  stand,  a  dense 
stand,  freedom  from  undesirable  competitors  and  tpee  weeds. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  cultured  coppice  forms  are: 

a.  The  simple  form  of  cultured  coppice,  where  all  shoots  have 
the   same   age. 

b.  The  two-storied  form  of  cultured  coppice,  where  the  growing 
stock  displays  two  tiers  of  leaf  canopy,  viz. :  an  upper  and  a  lower  tier, 
the  age  of  the  tiers  difl'ering  by  the  length  of  a  rotation. 

In  addition,  a  form  of  "high  stumps"  is  usually  distinguished, 
where  trees  are  cut  some  six  to  ten  feet  above  ground  and  where  the 
shoots  forming  on  that  high  stump  are  cut  at  short  intervals.  This 
form,  adapted  particularly  for  the  production  of  fascines  at  levees, 
is  known  as: 

c.  The  pollarding  form  of  cultured  coppice. 

In  this  form,  rotations  of  one  to  five  years  are  usually  adopted, 
and  the  "lopping"  takes  place  in  the  "new  wood." 

III.  Treatment  of  cultured  coppice  forms: 

Regeneration  in  the  cultured  forms  of  coppice  is,  of  course,  by 
coppicing,  helped  by  planting  stumps,  cuttings,  suckers  and  layering. 
Regeneration  may  proceed  against  the  direction  of  the  wind  which 
brings  the  heavy  frosts  of  spring  and  fall  (blizzard-direction). 
Cleaning  and  thinning  are  often  indicated. 

Paragraph  LXXI.     Critical  remarks  on  coppice  forests. 

The  coppice  forest  generally  furnishes  small-sized  timber,  notably 
firewood  and  farm  supplies,  but   no  or  little  saw  timber.     Its  pro- 
158 


SYLVICULTURE 

duction  is  not  so  many-sided  as  that  of  the  high  forest,  and  for  that 
reason  not  equally  safe. 

On  the  other  hand,  allowing  of  shorter  rotations,  the  timber 
investment  is  much  smaller  than  in  high  forest,  and  the  returns  from 
"final  yields"  are  more  frequent. 

A  comparatively  small  area  may  produce,  under  a  coppice  form, 
a  regularly  sustained  yield. 

The  soil  of  the  forest  is  frequently  exposed,  and  shows  a  thin 
layer  of  humus.  Shallow  soil  is,  however,  sufficient  for  the  welfare 
of  a  coppice  forest. 

Tlie  water-retaining  capacitj^  of  the  coppice  forest  is  small. 

Coppice  forest  is  less  exposed  to  storm,  fire,  snow,  and  insects 
(being  broad-leafed  usually),  and  more  exposed  to  late  and  early 
frosts  than  high  forest.  As  a  stock  pasture,  it  is  much  more  pro- 
ductive than  high  forest;  but  also  much  more  damaged  by  pasture. 

The  expense  of  regeneration  and  of  pedagogy  is  slight.  The 
species  forming  shoots  from  below  the  ground  and  those  forming  root- 
suckers  usually  allow  of  long  rotations. 

Paragraph  LXXII.    Coppice  forests  by  species. 

A.  Oaks: 

I.  Culled  Oak  coppice: 

Culled  Oak  coppice  is  usually  fire-culled.  The  stumps  do  not 
tire  of  emitting  shoots  after  each  fire.  Still,  the  shoots  become  weak, 
stunted  and  bushy-crowned  and  refuse  to  grow  in  diameter  as  well 
as  in  height. 

It  is  remarkable  to  find  that  these  worthless  shoots  may  be  re- 
placed by  strong  shoots  after  coppicing  with  the  axe. 

The  poorer  the  fire-culled  Oak  coppice,  the  greater  is  the  improve- 
ment obtainable  by  axe-coppicing. 

II.  Cultured  Oak  Coppice: 

In  Europe,  Oak  coppice  is  the  form  in  which  Oak  bark  is  raised 
for  tanning  purposes,  under  a  rotation  of  fifteen  to  twenty-five  years. 

In  America,  coppiced  Oak  is  used  only  for  charcoal  and  fire- 
wood— rarely  for  railroad  ties.  Rotations  yielding  ties  will  not  allow 
of  ready  reproduction  under  the  coppice  form,  unless  the  soil  is  very 
strong. 

At  Biltmore,  Post  Oak  three  inches  through,  White  Oak  ten 
inches  through,  Black  Oak  and  Scarlet  Oak  twelve  inches  through 
are  unlikely  to  sprout. 

A  rotation  of  not  to  exceed  forty  years  seems  indicated.  Such 
a  rotation  might  also  yield  hoop  poles,  poles  for  splitwood  fabrics 
and  minor  wagonstock. 

159 


SYLVICULTURE 

B.  Beech: 

Beech  coppice  jdelds  firewood  only,  charcoal  and  so-called  retort- 
wood  for  dry  distillation. 

The  sprouting  capacity  of  the  Beech  invites  short  rotations. 
Strong  soil  is  required. 

C.  Hickory: 

Hickory  coppice  promises  good  financial  results  on  strong  soil 
only.  Fires  must  be  strictly  kept  in  check,  owing  to  the  heavy  scars 
which  they  inflict  on  Hickory.  Rotations  of  about  twenty  years,  low 
stiunps  and  winter  cutting  seem  required. 

On  Biltmore  soil,  stumps  over  six  inches  in  diameter  usually  re- 
fuse to   sprout. 

D.  Locust: 

Locust  coppice  densely  planted  on  old  fields  seems  to  be  a  good 
investment,  although  the  poles  thus  produced  consist  of  sappy  wood 
undesirable  for  fence  posts.  The  young  shoots  suffer  from  a  pith- 
boring  moth   ( Ecdytolopha  species ) . 

The  sprouting  capacity  is  very  good,  helped  by  the  ready  forma- 
tion of  rootsuckers. 

In  Germany,  Avagon  stock  is  obtained  in  rotations  of  twenty  years. 

E.  Chestnut: 

Chestnut  is  the  American  species  best  adapted  for  the  coppice 
forest.  Stumps  of  any  diameter  emit  sprouts.  A  rotation  of  twenty 
to  forty  years  Avill  yield  vineyard  stakes,  hop  poles,  telephone  poles, 
posts,  rails,  ties  and  wood  for  the  extraction  of  tannic  acid;  a 
rotation  of  five  years  is  said  to  be  used  for  the  production  of  hoop 
poles  for  barrel   hoops. 

The  European  complaint  does  not  seem  warranted  in  America 
that  rotations  exceeding  twenty  years  invite  a  disease  known  as 
"heart-rot." 

In  Alsace-Lorraine,  thinnings  take  place  in  the  tenth  year;  the 
cut  is  made  in  early  winter,  and  the  stumps  are  sometimes  pro- 
tected from  the  influence  of  frost  by  heaps  of  brush.  In  the  Appa- 
lachians, such  precautions  are  not  called  for.  It  is  unnecessary,  if 
not  unwise,  to  reduce  the  number  of  sprouts  starting  from  one  stump 
artificially.     Spring  cutting  and  high  stumps  are  objectionable. 

On  dry  and  impoverished  soil,  or  under  the  regime  of  fires, 
Chestnut  coppice  is   hopelessly  lost. 

F.  Cottonwood: 

Coppice  forest  of  Cottonwood  produces  match  stock  and  pulpwood. 
The  stumps  have  little  vitality  and  will  not  endure  more  than  four 
rotations  of  twenty  years  each.     Very  low  stumps  are  required  to 

160 


SYLVICULTURE 

insure  healthy  sprouts  and  to  encourage  the  production  of  root- 
suckers.     The  growth  is  very  fast  in  the  first  years. 

G.  Willows    (Osier-culture)  : 

Osier  culture  is  considered  a  money  maker  in  Germany  where 
labor  is  cheap.  It  is  now  in  vogue  in  New  York  and  in  New  Jersey. 
The  best  species  are  Salix  viminalis,  Salix  amygdalina,  Salix  pur- 
purea, Salix  acutifolia  (caspica).  The  rotation  comprises  one  or 
two  years.  With  the  exception  of  Salix  caspica,  a  moist  soil  is  re- 
quired   (meadow  land  in  river  bottoms)    by  the  willows. 

The  stumps  do  not  yield  a  return  for  more  than  twelve  to  sixteen 
years. 

For  the  formation  of  an  Osier  grove,  shoots  two  feet  long  are 
used  of  which  about  80,000  are  put  in  per  acre.  It  is  stated  that  the 
more  shoots  there  are  per  acre,  the  better  is  the  quality  of  the 
Willow,  as  branchy  stuff  cannot  be  used  for  basket  making. 

Cultivation  between  the  rows  is  said  to  be  very  advisable  or  even 
necessary,  especially  in  the  first  years.  There  are  many  insects  feed- 
ing on  the  leaves  and  many  fungi  besetting  the  leaves  of  the  W^illow^s. 
A  one-year  rotation  is  best.  After  three  or  four  years,  however, 
a  two-years'  rotation  frequently  intervenes,  so  as  to  allow  the  root 
to  develop  unhampered.  The  shoots  two  years  old  are  used  for  the 
framework  of  heavy  baskets.  The  cutting  takes  place  in  July  and 
August.    Krahe,  however,  advises  cutting  in  November. 

The  first  cost  of  an  Osier  plantation  is  very  high.  After  Krahe, 
the  net  yield  amounts  to  $32  per  acre  per  annum. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE   COPPICE-UNDER-STANDARDS    FOREST. 

Paragraph  LXXIII.     Genesis  of  coppice-under-standards  forests  and 
its  methods. 

"Coppice  under  standards"  consists  of  an  underwood  and  of  an 
overwood. 

rhe  underwood  is  nothing  but  simple,  even-aged  coppice. 

The  overwood  exhibits  the  selection,  sometimes  the  group  form 
of  high  forest,  and  is  supposed  to  recruit  itself  from  seedlings. 

A.  The  underwood: 

I.  Species:      The  species  forming  the  underwood  must  combine 

natural  sprouting  capacity  with  shade  endurance.     On  good  soil,  a 

smaller  amount  of  both  qualities  is  required.     Excellent  species  for 

underwood  are  Basswood;   Chestnut;  Gum;   Hornbeam;   Calmia  and 

161 


SYLVICULTURE 

Rhododendron;  on  strong  soil,  Ash  and  Hickory;  underneath  a  light 
overwood   also   Oak. 

II.  Purpose:     The  underwood  supplies  or  may  supply 

a.  Companions  for  the  younger  age-classes  of  the  overwood, 
causing  them  to  form  clear  boles; 

b.  Protection   of  the   soi],   enriching  it  by  its   humus; 

c.  Firewood  and  small  timber;  also  tanning  material. 

The  underwood  yields  a  direct  revenue  only  in  case  "c."  Ob- 
viously, where  there  is  no  market  for  firewood  or  small  timber,  the 
underwood  is  only  indirectly  useful. 

III.  Formation:  For  diameter,  vitality  and  number  of  stumps, 
also  for  manner  and  season  of  cutting,  the  remarks  of  Par.  LXVIII. 
A.    I  about  coppicing)   hold  good. 

B.  The  overwood: 

I.  Species:  The  species  forming  the  overwood  shovild  be  storm - 
firm  and  sftiall  crowned.     Light  demanders  are  usually  preferred. 

Yellow  Pines  produce  wide-ringed  timber  on  strong  soil  and 
suffer  from  sleet.  Good  species  are:  White  Oaks,  Red  Oak,  Hickory, 
Walnut,  Yellow  Poplar,  Black  Cherry,  Locust,  Larch,  etc.;  on  poorer 
soil  Yellow  Pines  and  Long-leaf  Pine   (over  Black  Jack). 

II.  Age-classes:    The  number  of  age-classes  in  a  normal  overwood 

equals  the  fraction  R    wherein 
r 
R  represents  the  length  of  the  rotation  in  the  overwood,  and 
r  represents  the  length  of  the  rotation  in  the  underwood. 
The  normal  difference  of  age  between  consecutive  classes  is  "r" 

years. 

III.  Normal  formation:  The  overwood  is  composed  of  "stand- 
ards" regenerated,  at  the  year  of  coppiced  underwood,  from  self-sown 
seed  falling  from  the  overwood  or,  in  the  cultured  forest,  from  planted 
seedlings.  Tlie  seedlings  of  the  overwood  grow  up  immerged  and 
often  badly  endangered  in  the  new  underwood.  When  this  is  cop- 
piced at  the  age  of  r  years,  an  improvement  cutting  takes  place 
simultaneously  removing  misshapen  or  damaged  standards  of  the 
various  older  classes  as  well  as  the  weaklings  in  the  youngest  class. 
By  this  improvement  cutting  the  leaf  canopy  of  the  standards,  which 
has  had  ample  chance  of  enlargement  during  the  past  r  years,  is  cut 
back  to  a  normal  limit. 

The  older  an  age-class  is,  the  smaller  is  the  number  of  its  con- 
stituents. 

C.  Abnormal  formation  of  overwood  and  underwood: 

A  normally  proportioned  and  normally  formed  overwood  is  never 
found.     Deficiencies   lie 

162 


SYLVICULTURE 

L  In  a  lack  of  one  or  the  other  age-class; 

2.  In  an  abnormal  number  of  constituents  per  class; 

3.  In  the  fact,  that  the  overwood  is  partially  recruited  from 
stoolshoots  and  not  from  seedlings. 

Abnormal  coppice  over-standards  is  the  usual  consequence  of  the 
culling  of  primeval  hardwoods  or  of  primeval  pineries  forming  a 
superstructure  over  Oaks,  Hickories,  Gums,  etc. 

The  burned  slopes  and  outskirts  of  the  Alleghanies  usually  belong 
to  the  coppice-under-standard  form.  The  fire-coppiced  underwood 
here  consists  of  Soft  Maple,  Calmia,  Rhododendron,  Chestnut,  Oaks, 
Hickories,  Black  Gum,  Sourwood,  Halesia,  etc.,  etc.,  all  of  which 
are  usually  devoid  of  value. 

Culled  and  fired  forest  of  Pinus  echinata,  taeda  and  palustris 
frequently  belong  to  the  same  form,  with  Oaks  in  the  underwood  and 
the  Pines  in  the  overwood. 


Paragraph  LXXIV.     Pedagogy  of  coppice-under-standards  forest. 

Coppice  under  standards  is  or  may  be  tended  by  cleaning,  weeding, 
improvement  cuttings,  pruning  and  thinning. 

Thinnings  are  applied  to  the  underwood  only;  whilst  the  over- 
wood  alone  is  the  object  of  pruning. 

A.  Cleaning  purports  to  eliminate  undesirable  shoots  in  young 
coppice,  or  removes  desirable  shoots  liable  to  interfere  with  the 
development  of  overwood  seedlings  imbedded  in  the  coppice. 

B.  \Veeding  removes  weed  trees,  usually  tending  to  form  new 
sprouts  from  the  stumps  of  the  weed  trees  removed.  Weeding  is  a 
necessity  where  a  culled  forest  is  to  be  converted  into  a  cultured 
forest,  the  culled  forest  containing  a  large  number  of  weed  trees. 

At  Biltmore,  the  weed  trees  removed  are  Black  Gum  over- 
shadowing the  coppice  and  the  Pine  seedlings  standing  therein;  fire- 
scalded  Oaks  or  Hickories,  bent  and  low  crowned;  wolfs  of  Yellow 
Pine;  pretentious  Dogwoods  or  Halesias  and  so  on. 

C.  Improvement  cuttings  improve  the  prospects  of  the  overwood, 
remove  undesirable  members  of  the  overwood  and  regulate  the  number 
of  the  constituents  forming  an  age-class  of  the  overwood.  "The 
normal  cuttings  in  the  overwood  are  improvement  cuttings." 

In  semi-normal  woods,  the  oldest  class  of  the  overwood  is  entirely 
removed.  Class  II  is  reduced  to  the  former  membership  of  Class  I; 
Class  III  is  reduced  to  the  former  membership  of  Class  II,  etc.  It 
stands  to  reason,  that  the  least  desirable  members  of  a  class  should 
be  thus  removed.  In  semi-normal  woods,  the  improvement  cuttings 
take  place  at  the  time  at  which  the  underwood  is  ripe  for  coppicing. 
103 


SYLVICULTUEE 

The  improvement  cutting  yields  timber  of  all  sorts  and  of  all 
sizes  obtained  from  the  various  age-classes. 

The  improvement  cutting  does  not  regularly  intend  to  help  re- 
generation. Frequently,  of  course,  the  stumps  of  trees  removed  by 
the  improvement  cutting  form  sprouts  partaking  in  the  coppice-tier. 

D.  Pruning:  Dead  branches  of  the  overwood  trees  might  be  re- 
moved to  develop  timber  clear  of  dead  knots. 

Live  branches  of  overwood  trees  formed  low  on  the  bole  are  re- 
moved to  lessen  the  intensity  of  the  shade  to  which  the  underwood 
and  the  seedlings  imbedded  therein  are  locally  subjected. 

The  members  of  the  overwood,  owing  to  their  free  position,  are 
apt  to  form  and  to  retain  heavy  branches.  The  act  of  pruning  in 
coppice  under- standards  corresponds  with  that  described  in  section 
sixty-three  for  high  forest. 

The  coppice  is  pruned  only  in  rare  instances,  f.  i.,  for  the  im- 
provement of  oak  tanbark. 

E.  Thinnings  are  sometimes  indicated  in  dense  coppice  in  order 
to  increase  the  food  and  light  supply  of  the  youngest  age-class  of 
overwood  imbedded  in  the  coppice;  or  in  order  to  increase  gradually 
the  air  space  surrounding  the  members  of  that  class,  so  as  not  to 
subject  them  to  the  shock  of  sudden  exposure  at  the  time  of  cop- 
picing: or  to  obtain  the  ends  of  Par.  LXII.  A.,  especially  where 
the  overwood  classes  appear  in  groups;  or  to  improve  the  quality  and 
the  quantity  of  the  bark  in  tanbark  coppice. 

In  all  cases,  the  thinning  must  yield  a  surplus  revenue. 

Paragraph  LXXV.  Key  to  the  forms  of  coppice-under-standards 
forests. 

The  primeval  woods  do  not  contain  any  form  of  coppice  under 
standards.  In  culled  hardwood  forests,  on  the  other  hand,  these 
forms  are  almost  regularly  met  with. 

A.  Culled  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 

I.  Characteristics:  Primeval  hardwood  forests  are  usually 
paucivendible  only.  After  lumbering  the  merchantable  species  and 
sizes,  a  rank  grovpth  of  coppice  shoots  frequently  enters  an  appear- 
ance under  the  assistance  of  fires,  overshadowed  by  poles  and  trees 
of  all  age-classes  devoid  of  present  value.  Many  individuals  of  the 
overwood  are  badly  burned;  or  are  hollow,  fungus  decayed,  worm 
riddled,   etc. 

Thus  whilst  the  underwood  consists  of  fire  coppice  or  shoots 
sprouting  from  the  stumps  of  merchantable  trees,  the  overwood  con- 
sists of  undesirable  species  and  of  immature  trees  usually  crippled 
by  firing  and  felling.  In  addition,  there  are  plenty  of  weed  trees 
164 


SYLVICULTURE 

left  on  the  ground.  The  younger  age-classes  of  the  overwood  are 
usually   absent. 

In  forests  originally  composed  of  a  Pine  overwood  and  of  a  hard- 
wood underwood — a  form  once  frequently  found  all  over  the  South- 
east— the  lumberman  usually  removes  merely  the  taller  Pines  scaling 
over  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The  smaller  Pines,  if  fireproof,  hence- 
forth join  with  the  hardwood  trees  and  hardwood  poles  in  the  forma- 
tion of  an  overwood.  The  underwood  consisting  of  miserable  fire 
sprouts  is  continuously  clipped  by  forest  fires.  The  butts  of  these 
"snags"  are  flattened  on  the  groinid,  as  if  liquid  wood  had  hardened 
on  it.  The  shoots,  weakly  inserted  on  the  callus,  can  be  torn  off 
easily. 

If  these  snags  are  cut,  fresh  shoots  will  form,  of  much  greater 
vigor  and  of  greater  strength  at  the  point  of  insertion. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  culled  coppice  under  standards: 

The  number  of  forms  of  coppice  under  standards  is  particularly 
great,  owing  to  the  variations  occurring  in  the  tiers  of  forest,  viz. : 
the  overwood  and  the  underwood. 

a.  The  overwood  is  omni,  multi,  or  pauci  vendible,  as  the  case 
may  be.  It  is  arranged  either  in  groups  or  in  patcnes  (individuals) 
imbedded  in  the  coppice.     Thus  we  obtain : 

1.  The  form  of  culled  coppice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
group  type,  and 

2.  The  form  of  culled  coppice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
selection   type. 

b.  The  leaf  canopy  of  the  standards  covers  a  certain  percentage 
of  the  ground.  This  percentage,  where  high,  forces  the  underwood 
into  a  minor  role;  where  small,  it  allots  to  the  underwood  the  major 
part. 

The  Longleaf  Pine  woods  of  tlxe  South,  after  hea\y  culling, 
illustrate  the  latter  form;  the  Shortleaf  Pine  woods  of  the  Biltmore 
Plateau  exhibit  the  former  form.  These  forms  might  be  designated 
as: 

L  The  form  of  prevailing  coppice  under  standards; 

2.  The  form  of  coppice  under  prevailing  standards. 

c.  According  to  the  means  of  coppicing,  there  should  be  dis- 
tinguished 

1.  The  form  of  fire-culled  coppice  under  standards; 

2.  The  form  of  axe-culled  coppice  under  standards. 

III.  Treatment  of  culled  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 
Improvement  cuttings  and,  where  improvement  cuttings  cannot 

be  made,  weeding  are  usually  required. 

Fire  coppice  should  be  cut  down,  wherever  the  growth  is  stagnant, 
165 


SYLVICULTURE 

An  undue  preponderance  of  standards  may  be  checked  by  the  use 
of   the   axe. 

Planting  of  seedlings  can  usually  be  dispensed  with.  \Yhere  it 
is  advisable  to  plant  seedlings,  the  coppice  must  be  cut  clean  to 
begin  with. 

B.  Cultured  forms  of  coppice  under  standards: 

I.  Characteristic  for  the  cultured  forms  of  coppice  under  stand- 
ards is  the  lack  of  weed  trees  and  of  unhealthy  standards;  further 
the  geometric  regularity  of  the  figures  considered  as  compartments 
and  sub-compartments. 

The  overwood  is  composed  only  of  storm-firm  and  light-demanding 
species. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  cultured  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 
As  in  the  culled  forest,  there  should  be  distinguished: 

a.  The  form  of  cultured  coppice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
group  type  with 

1.  Prevailing  coppice,  or  with 

2.  Prevailing  standards. 

b.  The  form  of  cultured  coppice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
selection  type  with 

1.  Prevailing  coppice,  or  with 

2.  Prevailing  standards. 

The  standards  might  be  planted  in  regular  rows  (Charles  Heyer's 
idea)  or  in  regular  groups  or — irregularly — in  suitable  places;  or 
they  might  be  recruited  from  self-sown  seed  under  the  selection  type. 

III.  Treatment  of  cultured  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 
The  regeneration   of  the  overwood  as  well   as  its  pedagogy  is 

difficult,  unless  the  group  type  is  carried  through.  Individual  seed- 
lings are  very  apt  to  be  suffocated  in  the  mass  of  faster-growing  cop- 
pice and  require  continuous,- careful  attention.  Thinnings  are  re- 
quired to  prepare  the  youngest  class  of  standards  immerged  in  the 
coppice  for  its  future  task. 

The  overwood  is  sometimes  pruned — in  this  case  of  dead  as  well 
as  of  live  branches. 

Paragraph  LXXVI.  Critical  remarks  on  coppice-under-standards  forest. 
The  coppice-under-standards  foKcst  combines  the  good  qualities 
of  the  high  forest  with  those  of  the  coppice  forest.  It  furnishes  tim- 
ber of  all  sizes  in  the  largest  possible  variety.  It  requires  a  moderate 
investment  sunk  into  the  growing  stock  and  allows  the  overwood  to 
grow  into  log  size  at  a  very  fast  rate.  It  is  a  good  form  for  the 
owners  of  small  woodlands  desiring  steady  returns.  It  protects  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  better  than  the  coppice  form. 
166 


SYLVICULTURE 

The  logs  furnished  by  the  overwood  raised  selectionwise  are 
necessarily  branchy  and  wide  ringed,  with  the  incident  bad  and  good 
qualities  of  such  logs.  The  trees  usually  do  not  yield  more  than  two 
saw  logs. 

Where  the  underwood  is  unsalable  or  low  priced,  stress  must  be 
laid  on  a  prevalence  of  the  overwood.  Where  it  is  valuable  as  a 
tanning  material  or  as  wagon  stock,  the  underwood  is  favored. 

The  danger  from  fire — since  hardwoods  are  usually  at  stake — 
is  not  very  great.  The  density  of  the  brushy  underwood,  however, 
aggravates  the  difficulties  confronting  the  fire  fighter. 

In  Europe,  "  coppiee-under-standards  "  is  more  and  more  aban- 
doned and  restricted  to  the  inundation  districts  along  the  rivers. 
Here,  on  strong  soil,  the  undergrowth  endures  an  enormous  amount 
of  shade,  and  the  overwood  develops  fairly  long  boles  in  spite  of  a 
free  position. 

The  coppice-under-standards  form  in  Europe  requires  careful, 
minute  and  honest  management:  careful,  because  the  leaf  canopj' 
of  the  overwood  rapidly  increases  during  the  rotation  of  the  under- 
wood; minute,  because  individual  trees  or  groups  of  trees  must  ue 
continuously  watched;  honest,  because  an  unscrupulous  forester  or  a 
thoughtless  o^^^ler  may  easily  and  heavily  reduce  the  capital  of  the 
forest  whil'st  claiming  to  mei'ely  withdraw  revenue  produced  by  it. 

In  America,  in  the  hardwood  forests  of  the  Alleghanies  and  in  the 
pineries  of  the  South,  the  form  is  destined  to  play  a  most  important 
role.  The  form  exists  and  will  have  to  be  retained  for  decades  of 
years  to  come,  owing  to  its  tempting  financial  merits;  the  ease  and 
cheapness  of  regeneration;  the  short  period  of  waiting  between  re- 
munerative cuts;  the  variety  of  prodvice;  the  fast  rate  of  growth; 
the  small  amount  of  growing  stock  required  for  "  sustained  "  yields 
and   so  on. 

In  the  course  of  time,  curtailing  the  cut  of  standards  or  allowing 
the  coppice  to  grow  into  larger  sizes,  the  forester  may  gradually  con- 
vert the  coppice-under-standards  forest  into  a  high  forest.  The 
average  growing  stock,  per  acre,  in  the  high  forest  contains  about 
twice  as  many  cords  of  wood  as  the  average  growing  stock  in  the  cop- 
pice under-standards  forest. 

On  the  other  hand,  by  removing  all  standards,  the  form  of  sim- 
ple coppice  is  readily  obtained. 

In  the  Oak-coppice-under-Pine-standard  forest  of  Biltmore  it 
has  been  observed  that  the  Pine  poles  suffer  less  from  bark  beetles 
than  they  do  in  the  denser  polewoods  of  the  high  forest  of  Pine. 

167 


SYLVICULTURE 

Paragraph  LXXVII.  Coppice-under-standards  by  species. 

By  culling  and  firing,  every  primeval  forest  of  hardwoods  exist- 
ing in  the  United  States  is  converted  into  coppice  under  standards. 
Again,  many,  nay,  almost  all  two-storied  high  forests  in  the  South 
having  Pine  in  the  overwood  and  hardwood  in  the  underwood  present 
the  form  of  coppice-under-standards  in  a  modified  manner. 

The  number  of  constellations  of  species  for  a  place  in  the  over- 
Avood  and  in  the  underwood  is  endless. 

A  few  remarks  on  characteristic  forms  must  suffice. 

A.  Chestnut-coppice  under  standards  of  Yellow  Poplar,  White, 
Chestnut  and  Eed  Oak,  Hickory,  Ash,  Locust, — ^the  Pisgah  Forest 
form. 

Certain  age-classes  of  the  standards — the  sapling  stage  and  the 
pole  stage,  are  invariably  absent,  owing  to  the  fires  of  the  last  de- 
cades. The  number  of  Chestnut  stumps  is  deficient.  The  weed  species 
of  the  forest  (Halesia,  Soft  Maple,  Dogwood,  Calmia,  etc.)  readily 
replenish  the  coppice-stratum.  The  standards  regenerate  their  kind 
readily  where  the  weeds  are  not  too  rank.  No  means  are  known  by 
which  to  extirpate  the  tree  and  bush  weeds  preventing  n.  s.  r.  of  the 
standards  in  a  sufficiently  promising  way.  Heavy  pasturage  in  early 
spring  practiced  before  the  Chestnut  stumps  had  time  to  sprout 
and  before  the  seeds  of  the  standards  (excepting  Chestnut  Oak  and 
White  Oak)  had  time  for  germination  may  solve  the  problem.  Such 
pastiirage,  whilst  it  checks  the  weeds,  presses  the  seeds  of  the  stand- 
ards at  the  same  time  into  the  mineral  soil.  Other  remedies  are: 
Deadening;  cutting  with  high  stumps  left;  bark  peeling;  removing 
side  branches  with  a  brush  axe,  etc.  However,  entire  extirpation  of 
the  ligneous  weeds  does  not  seem  financially  advisable  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  Frequently  it  might  be  best  to  leave  the  weeds  untouched 
for  the  time  being,  postponing  the  battle  imtil  the  undergrowth  of 
seedlings  and  coppice  shoots  requires  increased  influx  of  light.  Then, 
too,  the  cutting  of  the  weeds  will  force  them  to  be  satisfied  with  a 
subsistence  below  the  level  of  the  u_nderwood. 

Chestnut  standards  should  not  be  left,  since  the  shock  of  a 
sudden  change  of  surroundings  causes  them  to  sicken.  The  adjoining 
woods  will  tend  to  reinforce  the  regeneration  area  by  n.  s.  r.  of  Chest- 
nut, where  the  compartments  simultaneously  coppiced  are  small  or 
narrow.  Artificial  reinforcing  seems  unnecessary  although  the  plant- 
ing of  Walnuts  in  suitable  places  may  prove  remunerative. 

E.  Oak  coppice  mixed  with  Hickory  coppice  under  Pine  stan- 
dards. 

168 


SYLVICULTURE 

This  form  prevails  on  the  Biltmore  Plateau  and  over  vast  areas 
in  Arkansas,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
etc. 

Silvicultural  treatment  is  possible  only  where  the  Oak  can  be 
removed   to   a   nearby  fuel-market. 

Rotations  of  thirty  to'  forty  years  for  the  coppice  seem  best. 

Shorter  rotations  aie  required  where  the  coppice  is  badly  dam- 
aged by  fires. 

In  seed  years  of  Yellow  Pine,  the  coppiced  area  should  be  as 
large  as  compatible  with  the  market.  It  might  be  wise  to  cut  early 
in  fall  and  to  burn  the  coppice  before  the  Pine  seeds  begin  to  fall. 
Seed  years  of  Pine  at  Biltmore  occur  at  intervals  of  seven  years. 
Improvement  cuttings  should  make  up  the  sustained  yield,  as  far 
as  possible,  in  years  of  deficient  seeding;  or  such  compartments 
should  be  taken  in  hand,  in  which  the  coppice  growth  is  richly  beset 
with  Pine  poles  and  Pine  saplings. 

In  the  course  of  the  improvement  cuttings,  the  nuclei  of  n.  s.  r. 
of  Pine  require  careful  attention.  Weeds  like  Chinquapin  and  Black 
gvmi  are  checked  wherever  they  obstruct  the  underwood;  where  they 
form  part  of  the  underwood,  especially  under  groups  of  Pine,  they 
should  be  thankfully  accepted  as  shade-bearing  improvers  of  the  soil. 

White  Pine  is  not  adapted  to  the  formation  of  standards.  Dur- 
ing the  earlier  stages,  it  retains  its  branches  badly  where  isolated  in 
Oak  coppice.  During  the  later  pole  stage,  it  is  apt  to  suff'er  from 
windfall.  Groups  of  White  Pine  standards  will  answer  better  than 
standards  individually  scattered. 

CHAPTER  V. 

PROPAGATION    OF    FOREST    PRODUCTS    OTHER    THAN    WOOD    AND 

TIMBER. 
Paragraph  LXXVIII.     Raising  of  forest  by-products. 

In  many  cases  better  revenue  is  obtained  from  the  by-products 
raised  in  the  forest,  than  from  the  wood  and  timber.  In  backwood 
sections,  closed  to  traffic,  forest  pasture  often  yields  the  only  means 
of  obtaining  revenue.  In  densely  wooded  districts,  the  combination 
of  agriculture  with  tree  growth  is  often  advisable.  The  main  prod- 
ucts thus  obtained  and  the  industries  connected  with  their  produc- 
tion are: 

A.  Tanbark  and  raising  of  tanbark: 

The  thickness  of  the  bark  used  for  tanning  purposes  and  obtained 
either  under  a  high  forest  or  under  a  coppice  forest  system  is  in- 
169 


SYLVICULTURE 

creased  by  proper  thinnings.  In  Oak  bark  coppice  abroad  the  num- 
ber of  stumps  per  acre  is  about  2,000,  reinforced  by  stump  planting 
at  each  cutting.  The  healthier  the  growth  of  the  shoots,  the  better 
are  the  tanning  contents  of  the  product. 

In  America,  at  the  present  time,  no  difference  is  made  in  the 
price  of  old,  corky  bark  and  of  young,  fleshy  bark  obtained  from 
shoots  only  five  inches  in  diameter. 

B.  Cork  industry: 

The  cork  industry  is  conducted  in  Southern  France,  Spain,  Portu- 
gal and  Xorthern  Africa.  For  America,  its  introduction  seems  highly 
remunerative. 

Experiments  made  in  Georgia  and  in  the  Carolinas  with  planta- 
tions of  Cork  Oak  have  produced  very  healthy  trees;  for  reasons  un- 
known, however,  the  cork  production  was  deficient.  Possibly  the 
wrong  species  or  the  wrong  variety  was  selected,  or  else  mistakes 
were  made  in  choosing  soil,  exposure  and  silvicultural  treatment. 

Mayr  recommends  experiments  with  Quercus  variabilis  for  the 
section  of  Germany  productive  of  Castanea  vesca. 

C.  Forest  pasture: 

Up  to  1880,  forest  pasture  in  Long-leaf  Pine  woods  of  the 
South  (Cane-brakes)  and  in  the  hardwood  forests  of  the  Alleghanies 
has  occupied  the  rank  of  the  most  important  forest  industry.  Nowa- 
days, pasture  is  indicated  on  maisy  a  windswept  ridge  where  the 
growth  of  timber  is  stunted,  whilst  the  atmospheric  moisture  allows 
of  a  luxurious  production  of  grass.  Under  nut-bearing  trees,  hog 
pasture  is  highly  remunerative.  In  "  strong  "  coves,  the  growth  of 
weeds  offers  splendid  forage  for  cattle. 

The  more  inaccessible  the  forest,  the  less  is  the  value  of  the  tree 
growth.  Here  an  industry  is  advisable  which  converts  vegetable 
fibre  into  animal  matter.  At  the  same  time,  the  advantage  gained 
by  pasturage  during  and  previous  to  regeneration  frequently  reduces 
the  expense  of  regeneration. 

Whether  the  fencing  of  forest  pastures  is  advisable  depends  on 
circumstances.    A  two-string  barbed  wire  fence  costs  $40  per  mile. 

Goats,  as  extirpators  of  woody  weeds  (Corylus,  Azalea)  are  fre- 
quently useful  on  mountain  pastures. 

Woody  weeds  damaging  the  pastures  are  kept  in  check  by  cou- 
tinuovis  mowing,  especially  if  mowed  in  August.  A  limited  use  of 
fire,  too,  improves  the  pasture.  Forest  pastures  are  invaluable  as 
fire  lanes. 

Pasturage  of  cattle  extends  in  Pisgah  Forest  from  May  1st  to 
October    15th.      Sheep    and   hogs    require    feeding   only   in    February. 

170 


SYLVICULTURE 

The  revenue  made  per  month  amounts  to:  per  head  of  cattle,  fifty 
cents;  horses,  seventy-five  cents;  sheep,  ten  cents. 

Where  the  growth  of  trees  on  a  permanent  pasture  is  too  dense, 
deadening  or  coppicing  is  required.  '  Where  it  is  too  little  or  where 
erosion  sets  in,  the  pasture  must  be  abandoned  for  a  number  of  ye.'.rs. 
Dead  trees  placed  horizontally  on  pastured  slopes  safeguard  the 
pasture. 

In  European  and  in  Indian  forests,  pasture  still  plays  a  most 
important  role,  frequently  as  a  prescriptive  right  encumbering  forests 
owned  by  the  Crown  or  by  the  aristocracy. 

Relative  to  forest  pasture  in  the  Cascade  Reserve  of  Oregon  «ce 
"  Forest  Policy." 

Forest  pasture  in  the  Pine  woods  of  the  South  and  of  the  Sourh- 
A\  est  i?;  of  utmost  economic  importance. 

Forest  pasturage  requires  regulation  in  the  following  points: 
Number  of  animals  per  acre;  species  of  stock  and  of  trees;  season  of 
piKtursge;  remuneration;  closed  years;  firing;  responsibility;  sj- 
pervision;   salting;   improvements;  access. 

D.  Forest  fruit  raising: 

I.  Pecan. 

Large  investments  are  being  made  in  Pecan  plantations  in  the 
South.  Usually  seedlings  three  years  old  are  planted  fifty  to  sixty 
feet  apart.  Payable  crops  are  expected  fifteen  years  after  planting. 
Cultivation  and  fertilization  of  Pecan  orchards  are  required  just  as 
in  apple  orchards. 

II.  Apple-trees  planted  on  freshly  cutover  woodlands  (Xorth- 
west  slopes)   are  said  to  be  particularly  promising. 

III.  Chestnuts.  Chestnuts  are  either  obtained  from  the  woods 
where  Chestnut  trees  are  grown  for  timber,  or  from  orchards.  In 
Pisgah  Forest  seed  years  are  said  to  occiu*  every  seven  years.  The 
nuts  sell  at  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar  per  bushel.  The  mountaineers 
burn  the  woods  to  more  readily  uncover  the  nuts. 

Orcharding  combined  with  grafting  of  French  Chestnuts  (Cas- 
tanea  vesca)  on  the  American  species  has  been  tried  in  Pennsylvania 
with  little  success  owing  to  forest  fires. 

In  Southern  France  a  large  revenue  is  obtained  from  the  nuts 
($5  to  $G  annually  from  a  good  tree). 

IV.  Acorns.  The  acorns  of  the  White  Oaks  are  ground  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  coffee  (Postum  Cereal  80%).  In  addition,  acorns  are  of 
high  value  for  pannage  and  in  game  preserves. 

V.  Berries.  The  crop  of  berries  growing  in  the  forest  is  locally 
leased  to  the  highest  bidder.  The  huckleberry  crop  is  improved  by 
periodical  burning. 


SYLVICULTURE 

E.  Maple  sugar: 

The  production  of  sugar  depends  on  the  size  and  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  individual  trees,  influenced  by  careful  thinning.  An  un- 
derwood and  a  hea\y  layer  of  humus  is  helpful.  Planted  sugar 
orchards  are  rare  and  suffer  from  sun  scald  and  from  hardening  soil. 

F.  Naval  stores: 

No  means,  are  known  tending  to  increase  the  production  of  naval 
stores.  The  best  yield  is  obtained  from  healthy,  large  trees. 

G.  Rubber  and  guttapercha. 
H.  Truffles  and  champignons. 

I.  Ginseng    (Aralia  quinquefolia )  : 

Ginseng  grows  in  the  Alleghanies  in  well-sheltered  north  and 
northwest  coves  of  greatest  fertility.  The  young  roots  are  easily 
transplanted  into  nursery  beds.  The  cultivation  of  ginseng  in  the 
woods,  however,  is  not  practicable. 

J.  Sumach  leaves: 

The  leaves,  used  for  tanning  on  a  large  scale,  are  gathered  on 
abandoned  fields  in  Virginia.  No  care  seems  to  be  devoted  to  the 
reproduction. 

K.  Pharmaceutical  weeds: 

•  A  large  number  of  forest  weeds  have  a  pharmaceutical  value  and 
might  be  locally  propagated  and  fostered. 

L.  Peat  bogs : 

Peat  bogs  reproduce  themselves  where  the  top  layers  only  are 
taken  off  periodically.  Small  benches  are  left  between  the  pits 
utilized. 

M.  Fish   and  game : 

In  the  Prussian  State  forests,  twelve  per  cent  of  the  annual 
revenue  is  obtained  from  hunting  aTid  fishing  leases.  Private  owners 
in  the  Adirondacks  and  in  the  South  draw  a  large  revenvie  from  leas- 
ing the  exclusive  privilege-  of  hunting  and  fishing.  For  particulars 
regarding  the  raising  and  nursing  of  Fish  and  Game_see  lectures  on 
"  Fish  and  Game  Keeping." 

Paragraph  LXXIX.    Combination  of  sylviculture  and  agriculture. 

As  the  woodlot  belongs  to  the  farm,  so  does  the  farm  embraced 
by  woodland  belong  to  the  forest. 

Strange  as  it  sounds :  The  forester  abroad  is  sometimes  charged 
with  the  administration  of  more  farmland  than  of  woodland. 

A  fair  practical  knowledge  of  agriculture  is  indispensable  for  tne 
administrator  of  forests.  Truly  agricultural  land  within  the  forest 
should  be  cleared  in  due  course,  in  pursuance  of  the  maxim  that  every 
172 


SYLVICULTURE 

acre    of    ground    must    be    placed    under    the     (permanently)     most 
remunerative  industry. 

The  forest  farm  produces  victuals  for  the  lumber  camp  and  for- 
age for  the  teams  and  yokes;  it  yields  the  best  possible  fire  lanes. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  a 
local,  permanent  or  temporary  combination  of  sylviculture  and  agri- 
culture is  frequently  indicated,  in  coppice  forests  as  well  as  in  high 
•forests,  in  cultured  forests  as  well  as  in  culled  forests. 

A.  Reasons  prompting  the  forester  to  adopt  "  agriculture  "  may  lie 
in  the  following  moments: 

I.  Frequently  it  does  not  pay  to  eradicate  the  "  weeds  "  in  the 
forest  previous  to  artificial  or  natural  regeneration  by  n.  s.  r.  In 
such  cases,  the  forester  may  take  advantage  of  the  fertility  stored  up 
in  the  humus,  using  it  for  a  nuuber  of  years  for  the  production  of 
field  crops  and  freeing  the  soil  incidentally  from  competing  weeds. 

II.  Similarly  the  forester  is  often  at  a  loss  to  save  his  regenera- 
tions from  the  attacks  of  wild  or  tame  animals.  Allowing  the  plan- 
tations to  pass  their  earliest  youth  in  the  midst  of  farm  crops  wiiich 
pay  for  the  expense  of  protection  from  animals  by  immediate  returns, 
protection  for  the  plantations  is  obtainable  at  a   reduced  charge. 

III.  The  fertility  stored  away  in  the  accumulated  humus,  al- 
though exhaustible  within  three  or  four  years,  frequently  furnishes  a 
snug  revenue  (especially  where  farmland  is  scarce,  as  in  all  mountain 
districts)  defraying  the  outlay,  or  part  of  the  outlay,  required  for 
successful  reforestation. 

IV.  In  the  prairies,  agriculture  must  precede  the  tree  plantation, 
Avhich  will  not  thrive  in  soil  devoid  of  porosity.  The  plantation  of 
trees,  on  the  other  hand,  will  protect  the  farm  from  drought  in  sum- 
mer and  from  high  winds  during  winter;  it  will  shelter  the  stock 
during  severe  blizzards,  etc. 

Henry  von  Cotta,  as  early  as  1819,  advocated  plantations  of  trees 
in  rows  twelve  feet  to  fifty  feet  apart,  the  intervening  spaces  to  be 
used  for  agriculture.  The  trees  and  the  rows  were  to  be  decimated 
gradually,  and  were  again  to  be  reinforced  in  compliance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  farm. 

Cotta's  plan  might  be  successful  where  drought  is  to  be  dreaded 
during  summer,  scorching  the  grass  meadow  and  the  gi-ain  field. 

B.  Modern  application: 

I.  Field  cri-ops  intervening  between  two  generations  of  the  forest. 

All  over  the  pineries  of  the  South  where  abandoned  fields  pro- 
duce splendid  polewoods  of  Pine,  the  woods  are  cut  at  the  thirtieth  to 
sixtieth  year  of  the  trees;  the  soil  is  then  used  for  the  production  of 
corn,  cotton  or  small  grain  for  a  number  of  years  and  thereafter 
173 


SYLVICULTURE 

allowed  to  revert  to  Pine  planted  by  n.  s.  r.  from  adjoining  woods. 
The  same  system  is  followed  by  thousands  of  farmers  in  the  old 
country. 

II.  Field  crops  temporarily  raised  amongst  and  together  with 
forest   crops. 

a.  In  coppice  forests: 

In  Germany,  the  o\vners  of  coppice  woods,  after  coppicing,  fre- 
quently burn  the  debris  on  the  ground,  ploughing  the  soil  roughly 
thereafter  and  using  it  for  growing  small  grain  or  potatoes  as  long 
as  the  fresh  stool  shoots  do  not  overshadow  the  farm  crops  too 
severely. 

This  system  allows  the  farmer  to  continuously  (although  inter- 
mittently) produce  field  crops  on  steep  slopes  liable  to  wash,  with 
the  help  of  fertility  furnished  by  the  humus  and  by  the  activity  of 
the  tree   roots. 

b.  In  high  forests: 

1.  In  the  early  stages  of  sylviculture,  acorns  and  pine  seeds  were 
frequently  planted  (like  red  clover)  with  barley,  oats  or  summer 
rye.     Compare  Par.  XV  for  details. 

2.  Sir  D.  Brandis  has  established  in  Burmah  a  system  named 
"toungya"  by  which  seedlings  of  Teak,  planted  with  rice  by  native 
lessees  on  government  reserves,  obtain  protection  from  wild  animals 
and  fires  as  well  as  from  the  Bamboo  threatening  to  suffocate  the 
seedlings. 

3.  A  similar  system  has  been  practiced  since  1810  in  the  German 
Rhine  valley  where  splendid  polewoods  of  White  Oak  have  thus 
been  raised.  Here  in  years  past  the  returns  from  toungya  used  to 
more  than  cover  the  expense  of  forest  planting  and  protecting.  The 
field  crops  shade  the  Oak  slightly  and  tend  to  protect  it  from  the 
effect  of  late  frosts  as  well  as  from  the  attacks  of  grub  worms 
(Melolonthidae). 

4.  In  Western  N.  C,  the  expense  of  clearing  the  forest  for  field 
crops  amounts  to  ten  dollars  or  twenty  dollars,  according  to  the 
density  of  the  growing  stock  and  according  to  the  yield  derivable  from 
the  sale  of  timber  removed. 

On  good  forest  soil  a  few  years  of  corn  crops  are  apt  to  refund 
the  outlay  incurred  for  clearing. 

Thereafter  the  Pines,  the  Oaks,  the  Yellow  Poplars  and  the 
Ashes  of  the  adjoining  woods  will  quickly  produce  a  superior  planta- 
tion of  trees. 

Whore  the  soil  is  stocked  with  tree  weeds,  and  where  no  im- 
mature trees  must  be  sacrificed,  the  system  can  be  strongly  endorsed. 

174 


SILVICULTURE. 


Alphabetic  index 


A  PAGE 

Acclimatization  of  trees 18 

Acorns,  planting  of 50 

Advance  growth  types 118 

Advance  growth  compartment  type 120 

Advance  growth  group  type 121 

Advance  growth  selection  type 123 

Advance  growth  strip  type 121 

Agriculture  in  the  forest 172 

Air  and  tree  growth 8 

Air  in  soil 12 

Alder,  planting  of  seedlings 82 

Alder,  planting  of  seeds 52 

Alemann's  method  of  winter-storage 51 

Alemann's  planting  spade 67 

Alpine  forest   24 

Altitude  and  tree  growth 37 

Ash,  high  forest  of 151 

Ash,  planting  of  seedlings 83,  86 

Ash,  planting  of  seeds __53 

Atlantic   forest    18 

B 

Bacteria   in    soil 16,  17 

Ball  planting 68 

Barth's  planting  beak 67 

Basswood,  high  forest  of 149 

Basswood,  planting  of  seeds 55 

Bastard  forms  of  types  of  enesar 87 

Beech  coppice 160 

Beech,  high  forest  of 148 

Beech,  planting  of  seedlings 87 

175 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Beech,  planting  of  seeds 52 

Biermans'  nursery  method 80 

Biermans'  spiral  spade 66 

Birc-h,  planting  of  seedlings 82,  88 

Birch,  planting  of  seeds 51 

Blue  spruce,  planting  of  seedlings 91 

Borggreve  thinnings 132 

Buckeye,  planting  of  seeds 54 

Bunch-planting .  61 

Buttlar's  nursery  method 80 

Buttlar's  planting  iron 67 

C 

Catalpa,  planting  of  seedlings 83,  87 

Cherry,  planting  of  seedlings 84,  87 

Cherry,  planting  of  seeds 56 

Chestnut  coppice 160 

Chestnut  coppice  vmder  standards 108 

Cliestnut,  high  forest  of 146 

Chestnut,  planting  of  seedlings 82 

Chestnuts,  plantings  of  seeds 51 

Cleared  compartment  type  of  enesar 100 

Cleared  group  type  of  enesar 104 

Cleared  selection  type 105 

Cleared  strip  type  of  enesar 102 

Cleaning 163 

Commercial  nurseries   72 

Coning  of  seeds 44 

Coning,  statistics  of _ 45 

Coppice  forest 153 

Coppice  under  standards 161,  164,  166 

Corkoak  industry 170 

Cottonwood  coppice 160 

Culled  forms 127,  128,  156,  163 

Cultivation  of  nurseries 79 

Cultivation  of  plantations   70,  72 

Cultured  forms   136,  139,  143,  144,  157,  164 

Cylinder  spade  68 

D 

Density  of  cover  overhead 28 

J)ensity  of  stand 27 

176 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Dependent  species    2(5 

Depth  of  soil ^ 13 

Dominant,  dominated 29,  GO 

Doiigliis  fir,  planting  of  seedlings 86,  92 

E 

Eclaircies  par  le  haut 132 

Ecological  factors    8 

Elm,  planting  of  seedlings 83 

Elms,  planting  of  seeds 53 

Englemann's  Spruce,  planting  of  seedlings 91 

Evenaged  foi'ms  140 

Evenaged  wood 30 

F 

Fall  planting   69 

Fertilizing  in  nurseries 75 

Final  cuttings    112 

Final  stage  112 

Firs,  planting  of  seedlings 85,  91 

Firs,  planting  of  seeds 56 

Floral  zones   '. 11 

Food  in  the  soil 13 

Forest  gardens   74 

Forest  pasture   170 

Forest  regions  of  U.  S 18 

Forms  of  coppice  forest 157,  158 

Forms  of  higli  forest 136,  142 

Fruit-raising  in  the  forest 171 

G 

Genesis  of  high  forest 41 

Gum,  planting  of  seeds 56 

Grafted  forms 137 

Group,  definition  of 25 

H 

Hair-dressing  of  groups 115,  122 

Heat  and  tree  growth 10,  38 

Heat  in  soil 13 

Hemlock,  planting  of  seedlings 86,  93 

Hemlock,  planting  of  seeds 59 

177 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Hickories,  planting  of  seeds 54 

Hickory  coppice   160 

Hickory,  liigh  forest  of 147 

Hickory,  planting  of  seedlings 84,  S9 

Horizontal  distribution  of  species '  .  .  .  30 

Humus 14,  16 

I 

Improvcjnent  cutting   127,  129,  156,  163 

Intolerant  species 32,  22,  24 

J 

Jack  Pine,  planting  of  seedlings 85,  90 

L 

Larch,  planting  of  seeds 59 

Latitude  and  tree  growth 37 

Lawson's  Cypress,  planting  of  seedlings 86,  92 

Lawson's  Cypress,  planting  of  seeds 60 

Layering 155 

Leaf  canopy 16 

Leaf-mosaic 9 

Light  and  tree  growth 8,  39 

Light-demanders 32,  33,  34 

Light-demanding  leaves   9 

Linden,  planting  of  seedlings 87 

Linden,  planting  of  seeds 55 

Locust  €oppice   160 

Locust,  planting  of  seedlings 87 

Locust,  planting  of  seeds 54 

M 

ManteufTel's  nursery  method 80 

Maple,  high  forest  of 150 

Maple,  planting  of  seedlings 83,  88 

Maple,  planting  of  seeds   53 

Messmates,  classification  of    29 

Messmateship,  degree  of 25 

Mexican  forest   20 

Mixed  woods 34,  35,  dO 

Mixed  woods,  advantages  of ^5 

Mixed  woods,  disadvantages  of 36 

178 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Mixed  woodSj  rules  for  mixing ['6 

Moisture  and  tree  growth 10,  38 

Mound  planting   G8 

Mycorrhiza 15 

N 

Natural  seed  regeneration  after  lumbering 9!) 

Natural  seed  regeneration,  ditliculties  of f)4 

Natural  seed  regeneration,  help  to <),") 

Natural  seed  regeneration,  methodology  of !)7 

North  American  Sylva 17 

Nurseries 7-2,  S4 

Nurseries,  protection  in 78 

0 

Oak  coppice 150 

Oak  coppice  under  standards 168 

Oak,  high  forest  of 145 

Oaks,  planting  of  seedlings SI 

Oaks,  planting  of  seeds 50 

Osier  culture KJO 

Overwood 1(51 

P 

Pacific  forest 21 

Pasture 110,  114,  120,  120 

Pedagogy  of  coppice  forest 157,  1 58 

Pedagogy  of  coppice  under  standards 103 

Pedagogy  of  high  forest 127 

Plnting,  advisability  in  U.  S 41,  42 

Planting  dagger  (iO 

Planting  hammer 67 

Planting,  historically    41 

Planting  in  furr-ows  and  in  holes 65 

Planting  in  prairies 71 

Planting  in  squares,  triangles,  quadrolaterals 61 

Planting  under  sod-cover   67 

Pollarding • 157,  158 

Prairie  planting 71 

Preparatory  cutting    109 

Preparatory  stage    lO^T 

Primeval  forest   142 

179 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Primeval  forms  130,  137 

Protection  of  seed  plantations 49 

Pruning 127,  130,  156,  163 

Pure  woods 25,     34 

Purpose  of  regeneration  in  America 126 

Q 

Qualities  of  soil 14,     33 

Quality  of  soil  and  its  influence  on  number  of  trees 27 

Quantity  of  seed  required  per  acre 47 

R 

Red  Cedar,  planting  of  seedlings 86,     93 

Eed  Cedar   (Thuja  plicata ) ,  planting  of  seeds 60 

Regeneration  of  aristocrats  and  of  mob 125,  140 

Reinforcing  49 

Eootpruning    78 

Rootsuckers 155 

Rotation 29 

Rotation  of  crops 15 

Rotation  of  forest  crops 127 

Ruling  species   25,     26 

S 

Sassafras,  planting  of  seedlings 84 

Sassafras,  planting  of  seeds 55 

Season  for  planting  seedlings 60 

Season  for  seed  planting 48 

Second  growth  forms 136 

Seebach's  modified  high  forest 142 

Seeding  cutting   110 

Seeding  stage   '.  .  .  110 

Seed,  indications  of  good  qualities  of 42,  43 

Seed-planting    43,  46.  4S 

Seedlings,  age,  size  and  number  of 63 

Seedlings,  criteria  of  good 62 

Seedlings  from  wildwoods   72 

Seedlings,  lifting  of 64 

Seedlings,  planting  of 60,  65 

Seedlings,  transportation  of 64 

Seed-planting  in  nurseries 76 

Seed-planting  in  rills  or  broadcast 76 

180 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Seed,  quantity  required  per  acre 47 

Seed  tests   :.:•.. 43 

Seed  years ;.:........  42 

Selection  type 105 

Shadebearers 32,  33,  34 

Shade-bearing  leaves 9 

Shelterwood  compartment  type 108 

Shelterwood  group  type 115 

Shelterwood  selection  type ....;::... 117 

Shelterwood  strip  type .......; 114 

Shelterwood  types   ' 106 

Sitka  Spruce,  planting  of  seedlings 91 

Size-classes  of  trees ......:...; 29 

Snow  and  tree  growth ;.:.;.■.;;:..•.■:.•.•:.....:..  39 

Sod-ashes . . 76 

Soil,  air  and  water  in ....::..•.:.: 12 

Soil-covers ..-..■..  .•.•.■.-.•.•.•.  .*.  . .  15 

Soil,  heat  and  food  in ...:......■ l3 

Soil-species    13 

Speed  of  forest  extension 1 1 

Spring  planting 69 

Spruce,  high  forest  of • .' 151 

Spruce,  planting  of  seedlings 85,  91 

Spruce,  planting  of  seeds 57 

Standards 113,  138,  141 

Structure  of  soil 12 

Stump-planting,  advantages  of 60 

Stumpshoots   153 

Subtropical  forest .  19,  20,  21 

Summer  temperature  and  tree  growth 37 

Suppressed ■•' •  •  2J) 

T 

Tanbark 169 

Thinnings  127,  130,  136,  163 

Tolerant  species 32,  33,  34 

Two-storied  coppice 158 

Two-storied  high  forest 138,  141 

Toungya    126,  173 

Transplanting  in  nurseries 78 

Trimming  in  nurseries   79 

Types  of  enesar 97 

181 


INDEX 

U  PAGE 

Underplatiting   127,  130 

Underwood IG I 

Ushergrowth   49 

V 

Vendibility  influencing  the  form 137 

W 

Wagener  thinnings    l";};] 

Walnut,  higli  forest  of 148 

Walnut,  planting  of  seedlings 84,  87 

Walnuts,  planting  of  seeds 51 

Wartenberg's  planting  iron fj7 

Water  in  soil 12 

Weapons  of  species  in  struggle  for  existence 20 

Wedded  forms    137 

Weeding    127,   128,   156,  103 

Weeding  in  nurseries 79 

White  Pine,  high  forest  of 152 

White  Pine,  planting  of  seedlings 85 

White  Pines,  planting  of  seeds 58 

Willow  coppice 160 

Wind  and  tree  growth 11,  30 

Wintering  of  acorns 51 

Y 

Yellow  Pine,  planting  of  seedlings 84,  90 

Yellow  Pines,  high  forest  of 152 

Yellow  Poplar,  planting  of  seedlings 83 

Yellow  Pines,  planting  of  seeds 57 

Yellow  Poplar,  high  forest  of 149 

Yellow  Poplar,  planting  of  seeds 5<I 


182 


HECKMAN 

BINDERY  INC. 

/^^      FEB  85 


N.  MANCHESTER, 
INDIANA  46962 


